The electron source for the ILC will use 2-nanosecond laser light pulses to eject electrons from a photocathode, a technique allowing for up to 80% of the electrons to be polarized; the electrons then will be accelerated to 5 GeV in a 250-meter linac stage. Synchrotron radiation from high energy electrons will produce electron-positron pairs on a titanium-alloy target, with as much as 60% polarization; the positrons from these collisions will be collected and accelerated to 5 GeV in a separate linac.
To compact the 5 GeV electron and positron bunches to a sufficiently small size to be usefully collided, they will circulate for 0.2 seconds in a pair of damping rings, 7 km in circumference, in which they will be reduced in size to a few mm in length and less than 100 μm diameter.
From the damping rings the particle bunches will be sent to the Superconducting RF main linacs, each 12 km long, where they will be accelerated to 250 GeV. At this energy each beam will have an average power of about 10 megawatts. Five bunch trains will be produced and accelerated per second.
To maintain a sufficient luminosity to produce results in a reasonable time frame after acceleration the bunches will be focused to a few nm in height and a few hundred nm in width. The focused bunches then will be collided inside one of two large particle detectors.
Exercise 58. Give the summary of the text.
Where have I heard that name before?
Exercise 59. Before you start:
What are these things? What have the words got in common?
| Biro ■ Braille ■ guillotine ■ Hoover ■ Jacuzzi ■ Levis ■ Stetson |
Exercise 60. Put these standard international (SI) units into the correct column.
amp ■ Celsius ■ curie ■ hertz ■ joule ■ kelvin ■ newton ■ ohm ■pascal ■ volt ■ watt
| Chemistry (1) | Electricity (6) | Physics (2) | Temperature (2) |
Exercise 61. Now complete the definitions (1-11) below with the units from Exercise 2 and the people in the box.
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836) ■ Anders Celsius (1701-1744) Marie Curie (1867-1934) ■ Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) ■ James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) ■ Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) ■ Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) ■ Count Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) James Watt (1736-1819).
1. A _________is a unit of pressure equal to one newton per square metre. It's named after _____a French scientist.
2. A ________ is a unit of force. It`s named after ________ an English mathematician.
3. _______ is the temperature scale that has the freezing point of water as 0 and the boiling point as 100 C. The scale was developed by a Swedish astronomer, ________.
4. A_______ _________ is an amount of electric power. It is equal to one joule per second. It's named after _______, a Scottish engineer and inventor.
|
|
|
5. A ______ is a unit of electric force. It's named after _____ an Italian physicist and pioneer in the study of electricity.
6. An________ is a unit of electric current. It's named after _____ a French mathematician and physicist, a pioneer in electrodynamics.
7. An________ is a unit of electrical resistance named after _______a German physicist.
8. A ________ a unit of energy named after _______ a British physicist.
9. ______ is the temperature scale that registers absolute zero (-273.15 C) as 0K. It's named after _______ a British scientist.
10. A ______ is a frequency equal to one cycle per second. It's named after ___ a German physicist.
11. A______ is a unit of radioactivity. It's named after ____ a Polish-born chemist who discovered radioactivity in several elements.
Exercise 62. Read the definitions in Exercise 3 again. Find words that mean:
1. studies the elements and their compounds
2. studies the universe
3. studies the physical properties of materials
4. thinks of new machines
5. develops new ideas about a subject
Exercise 63. Find out which things in this list are named after people. Can you add similar words from your language?
Mouse (for a computer)
Bunsen (burner)
Diesel
Geiger (counter)
Laboratory
Morse (code)
Tarmac
Text(book)
Part 14.
Albert Einstein
Vocabulary of the text
Grandeur , , ,
Sublimity ,
Awe ,
Boldly ,
To baffle ,
To climax with
Curvature , ,
Cosmology -
Postulation ,
Unification ,
To hinder , ,
Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 April 18, 1955) was a German-born Jewish theoretical physicist of profound genius, who is widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20-th century and one of the greatest scientists of all time. He was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905 and "for his services to Theoretical Physics".
After his general theory of relativity was formulated in November 1915, Einstein became world famous, an unusual achievement for a scientist.
Einstein himself was deeply concerned with the social impact of scientific discovery. His reverence for all creation, his belief in the grandeur, beauty, and sublimity of the universe (the primary source of inspiration in science), his awe for the scheme that is manifested in the material universe - all of these show through in his work and philosophy.
Einstein was born at Ulm in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany, about 100 km east of Stuttgart. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a featherbed salesman who later ran an electrochemical works, and Pauline, whose maiden name was Koch. They were married in Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt. The family was Jewish (non-observant).
He is the author of four articles that provided the foundation of modern physics, without much scientific literature to which he could refer or many scientific colleagues with whom he could discuss the theories. Most physicists agree that three of those papers (on Brownian motion, the photoelectric effect, and special relativity) deserved Nobel Prizes. Only the paper on the photoelectric effect would win one. What makes these papers remarkable is that, in each case, Einstein boldly took an idea from theoretical physics to its logical consequences and managed to explain experimental results that had baffled scientists for decades.
|
|
|
In November 1915, Einstein presented a series of lectures before the Prussian Academy of Sciences in which he described his theory of general relativity. The final lecture climaxed with his introduction of an equation that replaced Newton's law of gravity. This theory considered all observers to be equivalent, not only those moving at a uniform speed. In general relativity, gravity is no longer a force but is a consequence of the curvature of space-time.
The theory provided the foundation for the study of cosmology and gave scientists the tools for understanding many features of the universe that were discovered well after Einstein's death. A truly revolutionary theory, general relativity has so far passed every test posed to it and has become a powerful tool used in the analysis of many subjects in physics.
Einstein's relationship with quantum physics was quite remarkable. He was the first to say that quantum theory was revolutionary. His postulation that light can be described not only as a wave with no kinetic energy, but also as massless discrete packets of energy called quanta with measurable kinetic energy (now known as photons) marked a landmark break with the classical physics. In 1909 Einstein presented his first paper on the quantification of light to a gathering of physicists and told them that they must find some way to understand waves and particles together.
Einstein also assisted Erwin Schrodinger in the development of the quantum Boltzmann distribution, a mixed classical and quantum mechanical gas model although he realized that this was less significant than the Bose-Einstein model and declined to have his name included on the paper.
His work at the Institute for Advanced Study focused on the unification of the laws of physics, which he referred to as the Unified Field Theory. He attempted to construct a model which would describe all of the fundamental forces as different manifestations of a single force. His attempt was hindered because the strong and weak nuclear forces were not understood independently until around 1970, fifteen years after Einstein's death.
Exercise 1. Answer the questions:
1. Who is Einstein?
2. What was Einstein awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for?
3. Where was Einstein born?
4. What were Einsteins parents?
5. What can you say about Einsteins 4 articles on the foundation of modern physics?
6. Speak about the theory of general relativity.
7. Was Einsteins relationship with quantum physics remarkable?
8. What did Einstein dedicate his work at the Institute for Advanced Study to?
Exercise 2. Give the English equivalents to the following expressions:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
Exercise 3. Give the Russian equivalents to the following expressions:
rofound genius, to be deeply concerned, reverence, sublimity of the universe, primary source, scheme, featherbed salesman, Brownian motion, introduction of an equation, at a uniform speed, the curvature of space-time, powerful tool, massless discrete packets of energy, measurable kinetic energy, quantification of light, unification of the laws of physics, to construct a model.
|
|
|
Exercise 4. Are the following sentences true or false? If they are false, give the right answers.
1. Albert Einstein was deeply occupied with chemistry.
2. Einsteins family was Jewish.
3. The theory of relativity made Einstein world famous.
4. Hermann Einstein worked as a chemist.
Exercise 5. Insert the missing words:
1. Albert Einstein was a German-born Jewish theoretical physicist of
2. Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics for
3. Albert Einstein was the first to
Isaac Newton
Vocabulary of the text
Groundwork , ,
Celestial motion
Substantiation ,
Elliptic -
Spectrum of colours
Binomial theorem
Angular momentum ,
Hamlet ,
Child prodigy ,
Lens , , , , ,
Dispersion of light
To bypass , ,
Prophecies
Alongside ,
Sir Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 March 20, 1727 by the Julian calendar in use in England at the time; or January 4, 1643 March 31, 1727 by the Gregorian calendar) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and alchemist; who wrote the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (published July 5, 1687)1, where he described universal gravitation and, via his laws of motion, laid the groundwork for classical mechanics. Newton also shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for the development of differential calculus.
Newton was the first to demonstrate that the same natural laws govern both earthly motion and celestial motion.
He is associated with the scientific revolution and the advancement of heliocentrism. Newton is also credited with providing mathematical substantiation for Kepler's laws of planetary motion. He would expand these laws by arguing that orbits (such as those of comets) were not only elliptic; but could also be hyperbolic and parabolic. He is also notable for his arguments that light was composed of particles. He was the first to realise that the spectrum of colours observed when white light was passed through a prism was inherent in the white light, and not added by the prism as Roger Bacon had claimed 400 years earlier.
Newton also developed Newton's law of cooling, describing the rate of cooling of objects when exposed to air; the binomial theorem in its entirety; and the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. Finally, he studied the speed of sound in air, and voiced a theory of the origin of stars.
Newton was born in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. His father had died three months before Newton's birth, and two years later his mother went to live with her new husband, leaving her son in the care of his grandmother. Newton was a child prodigy.
From 1670 to 1672 he lectured on optics. During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. From his work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours, and invented the reflecting telescope to bypass that problem. (Later, when glasses with a variety of refractive properties became available, achromatic lenses became possible.) Newton argued that light is composed of particles. Later physicists instead favored a wave explanation of light because of certain experimental findings. Today's quantum mechanics recognizes a "wave-particle duality" however photons bear very little semblance to Newton's corpuscles.
|
|
|
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (now known as the Principia) was published in 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for the next three hundred years. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the force that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. In the same work he presented the first analytical determination, based on Boyle's Law, of the speed of sound in air.
In the 1690s Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never published. Later works - The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733) - were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy.
Newton's laws of motion and gravity provided a basis for predicting a wide variety of different scientific or engineering situations, especially the motion of celestial bodies. His calculus proved vital to the development of further scientific theory. Finally, he unified many of the isolated physics facts that had been discovered earlier into a satisfying system of laws. For this reason, he is generally considered one of history's greatest scientists, ranking alongside such figures as Einstein and Gauss.
Exercise 6. Answer the questions:
1. When was Newton born?
2. How is Newtons book on classical mechanics called?
3. With whom did Newton share credit for the development of differential calculus?
4. Enumerate all the discoveries Newton made.
5. Where was Newton born?
6. Who brought up Newton?
7. Describe the main ides of Newtons book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
8. Do you know any other written works by Newton?
9. Can you evaluate Newtons role in the development of different fields of science?
Exercise 7. Give the English equivalents to the following expressions:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .
Exercise 8. Give the Russian equivalents to the following expressions:
By the Julian calendar in use, to share credit, earthly motion, advancement of heliocentrism, to expand the laws, to be notable, to be composed of, to be inherent, the rate of cooling, in the care of, to decompose, achromatic lenses, experimental findings, wave-particle duality, to bear resemblance to, analytical determination, existence of the Trinity, further scientific theory, isolated facts, satisfying system of laws, to rank alongside.
