1. About 1450 Johann Gutenberg invented printing by movable type.
2. Surgeons were considered to be of much lower breed.
3. They pretended to remove bloodstained pebbles from the heads of mental patients.
4. The doctors were well-respected men in the community.
5. Officials supervised the cleaning of some streets.
UNIT X
I. Read the story and translate it.
Studying the human body
Even as far back as Roman times people had a fear of dead bodies. Dissection, that is the cutting open of bodies to learn more about the various parts and how they work, was banned by the religious authorities and by law. This delayed the study of anatomy for over a thousand years.
It is perhaps strange that the first real effort to study the human body wasmade by Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael and, in particular, Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo wished to draw the body with more realism than had previously been done and so he carefully examined the shape of the bone structure and muscles. Not satisfied with this he dissected over thirty dead bodies himself and drew pictures of most of the internal organs as well as the veins and arteries.
Later, a doctor named Andreas Vesalius turned the study of anatomy into a proper and recognized practice. In order to obtain subjects for his early examinations he had to steal the corpses of criminals and highwaymen which were left hanging on roadside gallows after public executions. A native of Brussels, Vesalius trained as a doctor in Paris, later moving to Padua University, northern Italy, where he became Professor of Anatomy. In 1543 he had published an illustrated book - The Working of the Human Body.
II. Retell it contents in English.
III. Answer the following questions.
1. Why learning anatomy by cutting open of bodies was banned?
2. What was the aim of such dissection?
3. Who made the first real effort to study the human body?
4. Why Leonardo da Vinci was not satisfied?
5. What did he do?
6. Who was Andreas Vesalius?
7. What did he do?
8. Why is he a remarkable person in anatomy?
9. Why did he steal the corpses of criminals?
10. When had he published his illustrated book?
IV. True/untrue, correct and write down the sentences.
1. In Roman times people had a fear of dead bodies.
2. The first real effort to study the human body was made by Aristotle.
3. Leonardo da Vinci was an anatomist.
4. Leonardo da Vinci drew first picture of human organs.
5. Leonardo da Vinci turned the study of anatomy into a proper and recognized practice.
6. Andreas Vesalius was one of the anatomist in Roman times.
7. Leonardo da Vinci was an artist, engineer, mechanic.
8. Vesalius had published first illustrated book.
9. Vesalius trained as a doctor in Saint-Petersburg.
10. Andreas Vesalius published a humoristic book.
V. a) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;
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B) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;
Fear, dissection, Renaissance, cutting open of bodies, highwaymen, execution, a proper and recognized practice, banned.
VI. Make up disjunctive questions
1. Leonardo wished to draw the body with more realism.
2. Vesalius trained as a doctor in Paris.
3. The study of anatomy was delayed for over a thousand.
4. He carefully examined the shape of bone structure and muscles.
5. In Padua University he became Professor of Anatomy.
VII. Make up alternative questions
1. Leonardo da Vinci Dissected over thirty dead bodies himself.
2. The criminals and highwaymen were left on roadside gallows.
3. Dissection was banned by the religions authorities.
4. The study of the human body was made by Renaissance artists.
5. Vesalius was moving to Padua University.
UNIT XI
I. Read the story and translate it.
Blood and air
The next important advance in medical knowledge came in 1627 when an English doctor, William Harvey, discovered how blood flowed through the body. As a member of St. Bartholomew's hospital, in London, he carried out numerous experiments on animals and human bodies and finally arrived at the correct conclusion that the heart is a pump which forces blood outward through the arteries to all parts of the body, the veins then carrying the circulating blood back to the heart again. He also found that valves in the heart allowed the blood to flow only in one direction.
Later in the same century another great discovery was made. This time it was a chemist, not a doctor, who made it. He was an Englishman named Robert Boyle, who found that air had substance and could be measured and weighed, in the following century an Englishman, Joseph Priestley and a Frenchman, Antoine Lavoisier, working separately, they found that air was a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen and that the harder the body worked the more air it needed to keep it going.
However, despite these discoveries, the 17th century ended and the 18th century began without any great changes in the treatment of illness. Bleeding, purging and dieting were still the popular remedies. Smallpox became the most dreaded disease.
