1. A person interested... developing a theoiy usually goes... a long university training program that culminates... a doctoral degree.
2. Erikson's and Piaget's lives might have contributed.... the theories they developed.
3. As part of the training, a future theorist is exposed... many ideas about a particular area of development.
4. Erikson returned... Germany and enrolled... art: school, became
dissatisfied and enrolled... another.
5. Piaget's mother was prone... frequent outbursts of neurotic behaviour.
6. Piaget didn't feel any desire to involve himself... deep pathological
psychology.
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7. Piaget detested any departure... reality, an attitude which he related... his
mother's poor health.
8. Science doesn't depend... the raw material of facts and data.
9. Science is built... facts the way a house is built... bricks. 3. Build your vocabulary.
Use: -ical, -al, -ed, -ive, -ing to form adjectives from the following words:
To satisfy, pathology, biology, development, culture, person, cognition, to
wander.
FOLLOW UP
I. Discuss the following issues: i)
1. Explain how one's experience might influence one's view on child development.
2. Define and distinguish among theory, hypotheses, and scientific method.
3. How did Erikson's personal search for self influence his psychological theory? How did Piaget's intellectual experiences motivate his cognitive developmental theory?
4. Write Erikson's and Piaget's biographies (120 - 150 words), following tips
for writing, and the plan given below.
Plan.
Introduction
(Para 1) name of person - what famous for
Main Body
(Para 2) early years (when/where born, education, etc.)
(Para 3) later years (marriage, achievements? etc.)
Conclusion
(Para 4) data of death, comments.
UNIT 2 LEAD-IN
1. Which of the following is true about theories to explain life-span development?
a) if the theorists keep working they will eventually come up with one theory that explains development
b) cognitive, psychoanalytic, and humanistic theories have nothing in common and can never be reconciled
c) The dieories proposed should be thought of as complementary rather than competitive
d) one theory from biology, one theory from cognitive psychology, and one theory from social psychology are all enough to explain development
READING
Find the meaning of the following words in the dictionary and guess
the main issues of the text.
| to crop up to rethink to keep from to account for to disagree about to be colored by to be highlighted to sense to resolve to alert to push out to emerge to deal with |
undertaking challenging
landscape multifaced
awareness frustrated
mind complementary
demand contradictory
branch
decision
conscience
constraints
pursuit
Read the text and find the words given above in it.
TEXT
The diversity of theories makes understanding life-span development a challenging undertaking. Just when you think one theory has the correct explanation of life-span development, another theory crops up and makes you rethink your earlier conclusion. To keep from getting frustrated, remember that life-span development is a complex, multifaceted topic and no single theory has been able to account for all aspects of it. Each theory has contributed an important piece to the life-span development puzzle. While the theories sometimes disagree about certain aspects of life-span development, much of their
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r*sychoanalytk Theories
For psychoanalytic theorists, development is primarily unconscious - that is, beyond awareness - and is heavily colored by emotion.' Psychoanalytic theorists believe that behavior is merely a surface characteristic and that to truly understand development we have to analyze the symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind. Psychoanalytic theorists also stress that early experiences with parents extensively shape our development. These characteristics are highlighted in the main psychoanalytic theory, that of Sigmund Freud.
Freud's Theory
Freud (1856-1939) developed his ideas about psychoanalytic theory from work with mental patients. He was a medical doctor who specialized in neurology. He spent most of his years in Vienna, though he moved to London near the end of his career because of the Nazis' anti-Semitism.
Freud (1917) believed that personality has three structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the Freudian structure of personality that consists of instincts, which are an individual's reservoir of psychic energy. In Freud's view, the id is totally unconscious; it has no contact with reality. As children experience the demands and constraints of reality, a new structure of personality emerges -the ego, the Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. The ego is called the "executive branch" of personality, because it makes rational decisions. The id and the ego have no morality. They do not take into account whether something is right or wrong. The superego is the Freudian structure of personality that is the moral branch of personality and does take into account whether something is right or wrong. Think of the superego as what we often refer to as our "conscience."-You probably are beginning to sense that both the id and the superego make life rough for the ego. Your ego might say, "I will have sex only occasionally and be sure to take the proper precautions, because I don't want the intrusion of a child in the development of my career." However, your id is saying, "I want to be satisfied; sex is pleasurable." Your superego is at work too: "I feel guilty about having sex."
Remember that Freud considered personality to be like an iceberg; most of personality exists below our level of awareness, just as the massive part of an iceberg is beneath the surface of the water.
Conscious and unconscious processes: The iceberg analogy. This rather odd-looking diagram illustrates Freud's belief that most of the important personality processes occur below the level of conscious awareness. In examining people's conscious thoughts and their behaviors, we can see some reflections of the ego and the superego. Whereas the ego and superego are partly
How does the ego resolve the conflict between its demands for reality, the wishes of the id, and constraints of the superego? Through defense mechanisms, the psychoanalytic term for unconscious methods, the ego distorts reality, thereby protecting it from anxiety. In Freud's view, the conflicting demands of the personality structures produce anxiety. For example, when the ego blocks the pleasurable pursuits of the id, inner anxiety is felt. This diffuse, distressed state develops when the ego senses that the id is going to cause harm to the individual. The anxiety alerts the ego to resolve the conflict by means of defense mechanisms.
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They cannot scare me with their empty spaces Between stars - on stars where no human race is. I have it in me so much nearer home To scare myself with my own desert places.
Robert Frost Repression is the most powerful and pervasive defense mechanism, according to Freud; it works to push unacceptable id impulses out of awareness and back' into the unconscious mind. Repression is the foundation from which all other defense mechanisms work; the goal of every defense mechanism is to repress, or push threatening impulses out of awareness. Freud said that our early childhood experiences, many of which he believed were sexually laden, are too threatening and stressful for us to deal with consciously. We reduce the anxiety of this conflict through the defense mechanism of repression.
I. Find the following expressions in the text and try to explain their meaning
1. To make smth a challenging undertaking
2. An important piece to the life-span development puzzle
3. To disagree about certain aspect of...
4. The total landscape of the development
5. To take into account (wether something is right or wrong)
6. To make life rough for smb (smth)
7. To cause sfyarm to smb
8. To reduce anxiety through (smth)
II. Decide which of the choices a, b, c,d\s the correct answer
1. Psychoanalytic theorists analyze primarily
a) emotions
b) inner workings of the mind
c) behaviour
d) mental disoders -/w*7 deS^f
2. The best way to keepVTiustrated in explanation of life-span
development is
a) to follow one theory
b) to discard all existing theories and constrict the new one
c) to revise theories considering them complementary rather than contradictory
d) to revise theories considering them contradictory ►
3. Developing a study schedule is mostly a function of the
a) id
b) ego
c) superego
d) ego-idea]
4. According to Freud, an individual's reservoir of psychic is
a) id
b) ego
c) superego
d) defense mechanism
5. Freud considered personality to be like an iceberg, which exists
a) mostly be n.e:ith
b) mostly on surface
c) half below and half on die surface
III. Decide which of the sentences are correct. Write (T) - true, or (F)- false.
1. The existing theories disagree about certain aspects of life-span development, and much of their information is contradictory.
2. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that to 'truly understand development we have to analyze surface characteristics of a personality.
3. Freud developed his ideas from work with people who suffered
from mental disorders.
4. Id is partly conscious.
5. Superego takes into account whether something is right or wrong.
6. According to Freud most of personality exists below our level of awareness.
7. Defense mechanism are consious methods which help to protect from anxiety.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
