When Tom Melohn and Garner Beckett, Jr., bought California-based North American Tool & Die Co. (NATD), it was a struggling supplier of parts to the Silicon Valley’s infant computer industry. Sales were flat, its equipment was outdated, quality was questionable, and the workforse was unhappy. Clearly, the organization needed redesigning – but not in the traditional sense.
Melohn reshaped the organization based on his managerial belief that most workers want to perform well if they are treated honestly, fairly, and with respect. He concentrated on four principles: hire good people who care, workers are “the same” as anyone else (including management), follow the Golden Rule, and remember that the person doing a job knows it best. Sceptics might ask, what about the bottom line? During the next twelve years, NATD increased its productivity by 480 percent and pretax earnings by 2,400 percent.
Delegation and socialization were key elements to the implementation of Melohn principles. For instance, foremen were treated as professionals, empowered with the authotiry to make decisions. “If [foremen] got a suggestion from the floor, they didn’t have to get approvals,” says Fred Ferrari, vice president of manufacturing. “That’s why we became very successful. It gives power to the employee…. That translates into better quality all the way down the line … into better productivity, lower absenteeism.”
Through socialization, workers learned new norms of the organization. They were allowed to dress as they wished (Melohn himself was notorious for appearing in loud sportswear) and encouraged to embrace such values as integrity, respect, and character. Melohn went out of his way to prove his trust in his employees – and it paid off. For example, he removed electronic blocks to long-distance phone calls, subsequently, no unauthorized calls were made.
Customers responded to NATD’s increase in productivity and quality. Dave Brown, formerly of Hewlett-Packard, said simply, “they were among the very best. I’ve been in a lot of companies that are sweatshops … and the quality just isn’t there when people don’t care. In Tom’s company, all the people cared, and you knew they did. That made the difference.” Brown was so enamored of the way NATD was designed that when he later became general manager and president of Colorado Time Systems Inc., he structured his organization to resemble NATD. “It was right up my alley, really, because I believe in the things [Melohn] was doing,” Brown explains.
Eventually, Melohn sold his stake in NATD and is now the author of The New Partnership: Profit by Bringing Out the Best in Your People, Customers, and Yourself. NATD employees report a decline in morale, creativity, and productivity since his departure. Perhaps the leader was indistinguishable from his organisation’s design.
Questions:
1. Do you think NATD’s design was too dependent on the philosophies of its leader? Why or why not?
2. What type of organizational design might be most beneficial to NATD? Why?
3. What aspects of NATD’s environment (such as the status of the computer industry in general) might affect its future structure and design?
(Patrick M. Wright, Raymond A. Noe Management of Organisations)
Task 3. Read the short case study below and complete the activities that follow:
Tracey Ellis set up the Domestic Bliss Agency in January 2006. Despite a long career working in the aviation industry across Europe, she felt unfulfilled. A growing desire to use her love of colour and creative skills and the need to do something more challenging were the key motives in her decision to become self-employed. The thought of returning back to work after three weeks holiday sparked Tracey into action and, within an evening, she had not only come up with an idea, but also a name for the new business.
Tracey’s business idea was to offer a wide range of cleaning services to business and personal customers in Cheshire and the north west of England. These services would include cleaning, laundry, sewing, pet-minding and house-checking for clients on holiday. The Agency would differentiate itself from other cleaning firms by providing consistently high standards of service and by closely tailoring the service offered to customers’ individual needs. Initially, in order to keep start-up costs to a minimum, the Agency would be based at Tracey’s own house and she intended to use her car to transport her between clients. As the business expanded, Tracey planned to employ additional staff, known as Bliss Maids, to assist her.
Although she had never run her own business before, Tracey’s employment training had allowed her to develop many of the skills and qualities required, including problem solving, self-motivation, planning and organisation. Extensive internet research helped to improve her understanding of a number of practical issues, including tax. She also quickly became aware of the need to access a range of sources of finance, especially as the business expanded.
One of Tracey’s first challenges was to decide on the most appropriate legal structure she should adopt for her business. The most common choices for a new, small business such as the Domestic Bliss Agency are as follows:
- Sole trader
- Partnership
- Private limited company
Which form of business ownership is most suitable for the Domestic Bliss Agency. Give an accurate and concise definition of the form, outline its key advantages and disadvantages, fully justify your concluding decision.
FINAL SESSION
1. Prepare a talk about a type of business ownership you would like to set up: its plusses and minuses https://www.sba.gov/category/navigation-structure/starting-managing-business/starting-business/choose-your-business-stru
2. Select one from a company’s annual report, and give a presentation of it.
LESSON THREE
LEADERSHIP STYLES. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Text A: Leadership styles
Text B: Theories of motivation
Grammar: Conditional sentences. Sequence of tenses
Phonetics: Revision
PHONETIC EXERCISES
Task 1. Pronounce correctly:
survey [ˈsɜːveɪ], research [rɪˈsɜːtʃ], attempt [əˈtɛmpt], concept [ˈkɒnsɛpt], enthusiasm [ɪnˈθjuːzɪæz(ə)m], devotion [dɪˈvəʊʃ(ə)n], challenge [ˈtʃælɪndʒ], premium [ˈpriːmɪəm], systematic [ˌsɪstɪˈmætɪk], though [ðəʊ], consistently [kənˈsɪst(ə)ntlɪ], distinguish [dɪˈstɪŋɡwɪʃ], although [ɔːlˈðəʊ], assertive [əˈsɜːtɪv], exact [ɪɡˈzækt, ɛɡ-], initiative [ɪˈnɪʃətɪv], assurance [əˈʃʊər(ə)n(t)s], area [ˈɛərɪə], sexual [ˈsɛkʃʊəl], employee [ˌɪmplɔɪˈiː, ɛm], employer [ɪmˈplɔɪə, ɛm-], ensure [ɪnˈʃʊə, ɪnˈʃɔː, ɛn-], temperament [ˈtɛmp(ə)rəmənt], primarily [praɪˈmɛr(ə)lɪ], absent [ˈæbs(ə)nt], executive [ɪɡˈzɛkjʊtɪv, ɛɡ-], supervise [ˈs(j)uːpəvaɪz], routine [ruːˈtiːn], expenditure [ɪkˈspɛndɪtʃə, ɛk-], source [sɔːs]
Task 2. Read the sentences with proper intonation:
1. Although leadership is highly related to and important to management, leadership and management are not the same concepts.
2. To dramatize the difference, leadership writer Warren Bennis has said…
3. This view - that leaders are born, not made - is still popular among laypersons.
4. In searching for measurable leadership traits, researchers have taken two approaches…
5. Leaders have been found to be brighter, more extroverted, and more self-confident.
6. One study found that intelligence, initiative, and self-assurance were associated with…
7. Women who do become leaders, however, not only perform…, but are also perceived…
8. Behaviours, unlike traits, can be learned.
9. Researchers exploring leadership functionscame to the conclusion…
10. This does not mean that the group is doomed, though.
Task 3. Write transcription of the following words:
worth, dramatize, serve, inspire, enthusiasm, arouse, dynamic, engagement, possess psychologist, identify, emerge, extrovert, indisputable, moody, isolate, associate, successful, effective, equality, unconscious, stereotyping, perceive, determine, maintenance, disputes, undoubtedly, authoritarian, cohesiveness, incentives, scientific, variety, enhance, nurture, inherent, coerce, ingenuity, utilize.
Task 4. Put stresses on the following pairs of words and explain the difference:
influence (n) – influence (v)
effort (n) – afford (v)
attain (v) – obtain (v)
emphasis (n) – emphasize (v)
effect (n) – affect (v)
adopt (v) – adapt (v)
origin (n) – originate (v)
relatively (adv) – relate (v)
contribution (n) – contribute (v)
colleague (n) – college (n)
distribute (v) – distribution (n)
Task 5. Read the sentences with proper intonation:
1. Getting the job done is given more emphasis than…
2. They seek friendly, trusting, and respectful relationship with employees, …
3. How a manager leads will undoubtedly be primarily influenced by…
4. They can, however, modify their leadership behavior.
5. It is management’s job to determine the right way.
6. The main tenets of this view are as follows: …
7. The major variables in process models are incentive, drive, reinforcement and expectancy.
8. One set of factors are those which, if absent, cause dissatisfaction.
9. They place emphasis on the actual process of motivation.
10. Whether in the form of wages, piecework, incentive pay, bonuses, stock options, company paid insurance, money is important.
Text A: Leadership Styles
DEFINING LEADERSHIP
In his survey of leadership theories and research Ralph M. Stogdill pointed out that "there are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept". We will define managerial leadership as the process of directing and influencing the task-related activities of group members. It is worth noting that although leadership is highly related to and important to management, leadership and management are not the same concepts. To dramatize the difference, leadership writer Warren Bennis has said that most organizations are overmanaged and underled. A person can serve as an effective manager - a good planner and a fair, organized administrator - but lack the motivational skills of a leader. Others can serve as effective leaders - skilled at inspiring enthusiasm and devotion - but lack the managerial skills to channel the energy they arouse in others. Given the challenges of dynamic engagement in today's organizational world, many organizations are putting a premium on managers who also possess leadership skills.
THE TRAITAPPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
The first systematic effort by psychologists and other researchers to understand leadership was the attempt to identify the personal characteristic of leaders. This approach assumed that leaders share certain inborn personality traits. This view - that leaders are born, not made - is still popular among laypersons, though not among professional researchers. In searching for measurable leadership traits, researchers have taken two approaches: (1) comparing the traits of those who have emerged as leaders with the traits of those who have not; and (2) comparing the traits of effective leaders with those of ineffective leaders.
LEADERS AND NONLEADERS
Most studies on leadership traits have fallen into the first category. However, they have largely failed to uncover any traits that clearly and consistently distinguish leaders from followers. It is true that leaders as a group have been found to be brighter, more extroverted, and more self-confident than non-leaders. They also tend to be taller. Although millions of people have these traits, most of them will never attain leadership positions. Moreover, many indisputable leaders have not had these traits - Abraham Lincoln, for example, was moody and introverted, and Napoleon was rather short. It is also possible that individuals become more assertive and self-confident once they occupy a leadership position, so some of the traits identified may be the results of leadership experience rather than the causes of leadership ability. Although personality measurements may one day become exact enough to isolate leadership traits, the evidence thus far suggests that people who emerge as leaders possess no single constellation of traits that clearly distinguish them from non-leaders.
EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE LEADERS
Attempts to compare the characteristics of effective and ineffective leaders - the second category of leadership trait studies - are more recent and fewer in number, but they, too, have generally failed to isolate traits strongly associated with successful leadership. One study did find that intelligence, initiative, and self-assurance were associated with high managerial levels and performance. However, this study also found that the single most important factor related to the managerial level and performance was the manager's supervisory ability - that is, his orher skill in using supervisory methods appropriate to the particular situation. Most other studies in this area also have found that effective leadership does not depend on a particular setof traits, but rather on how well the leader's traits match the requirements of the situation. Some researchers have also found that although women are still less likely than men to emerge as leaders, they are just as effective when they do. Even though an increasing number of people believe in equality of ability and opportunity, persistent, often unconscious, sexual stereotyping continues to hamper the recognition of women as potential leaders. Women who do become leaders, however, not only perform as well as male leaders according to objective measurements, but are also generally perceived as equally effective by their employees.
THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
When it became evident that effective leaders did not seem to have a particular set of distinguishing traits, researchers tried to isolate the behaviouralcharacteristic of effective leaders. In other words, rather than try to figure out who effective leaders are,researchers tried to determine what effective leaders do - how they delegate tasks, how they communicate with and try to motivate their followers or employees, how they carry out their tasks, and so on. Behaviours, unlike traits, can be learned,so it followed that individuals trained in appropriate leadership behaviours would be able to lead more effectively. These researchers have focused on two aspects of leadership behaviour: leadership functions and leadership styles.
LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS
Researchers exploring leadership functionscame to the conclusion that to operate effectively groups need someoneto perform two major functions: task-relatedor problem solving functions and group-maintenanceor social functions. Group-maintenance functions include such actions as mediating disputes and ensuring that individuals feel valued by the group. An individual who is able to perform both roles successfully would be an especially effective leader. In practice, however, a leader may have the skill or temperament or time to play only one role. This does not mean that the group is doomed, though. Studies have found that most effective groups have some form of shared leadership: one person (usually the manager or formal leader) performs the task function, while another member performs the social function.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
The two leadership functions - task-related and group-maintenance - tend to be expressed in two different leadership styles.Managers who have a task-oriented styleclosely supervise employees to be sure the task is performed satisfactorily. Getting the job done is given more emphasis than employee's growth or personal satisfaction. Managers with an employee-oriented styleput more emphasis on motivating rather than controlling subordinates. They seek friendly, trusting, and respectful relationship with employees, who are often allowed to participate in decisions that affect them. Most managers use at least a little of each style, but put more emphasis on either tasks or employees. How a manager leads will undoubtedly be primarily influenced by his or her background, knowledge, values, and experience (forces in the manager). For example, a manager who believes that the needs of the individual must come second to the needs of the organization is likely to take a very directive role in employees' activities. However, characteristics of subordinatesmust also be considered before managers can choose an
appropriate leadership style. A manager can allow greater participation and freedom when
employees crave independence and freedom of action, want to have decision-making
responsibilities, identify with the organization's goals, are knowledgeable and experienced
enough to deal with a problem efficiently, and have experiences that lead them to expect participative management.Where these conditions are absent, managers might need initially to adopt a more authoritarian style. They can, however, modify their leadership behaviour as employees gain in self-confidence, skill, and organizational commitment.
Finally, a manager's choice of leadership style must address such situational forcesas the organization's preferred style, the size and cohesiveness of a specific work group, the nature of the group's tasks, the pressures of time, and even environmental factors - all of which may affect organization members attitudes toward authority. Most managers, for example, lean toward the leaders up style favoured by the organization's top ranking executives.
(from Management by J.Stoner, R. Freeman, D.Gilbert Jr).
Text B: Theories of Motivation
MOTIVATION AND HUMAN MANAGEMENT
Motivated people are those who have made a conscious decision to devote considerable effort to achieving something that they value. What they value will differ greatly from one individual to another. There are a variety of ways to motivate people, including a fear of losing a job, financial incentives, self-fulfillment goals and goals for the organization or groups within the organization.
The traditional view – finds some of its origins in the work of Taylor and the school of scientific management. At its most extreme, this view postulates the following:
ü People dislike work
ü People will only work for money
ü People are now capable of controlling their work or directing themselves
ü Simple, repetitive tasks will produce the best results
ü Workers should be closely supervised and tightly controlled
ü Extra effort must lead to greater reward
ü People will meet standards if they are closely controlled
ü Firm but fair supervision will be respected
Taylor took the view that there is the right (meaning best) way to perform any task. It is management’s job to determine the right way. Workers gain from this approach because the ‘right way’ is easier and pay is enhanced as a result of increased productivity.
The human relation view - originates in the work of Mayo, known as the Hawthorne Studies. The series of studies essentially concluded that the strongest motivational force behind most employees’ behaviour at work was the preservation and nurturing of social relationships with their colleagues. The main tenets of this view are as follows:
- people want to be made to feel valued and important
- people want recognition for their work
- people want to be controlled sensibly
- managers must discuss the plans they make for staff
- they must take any objections on board
- they must encourage self-regulation on routine tasks
Mayo’s work leads to an approach towards people which encourages contribution and self-direction, advocating full participation on matters of significance in order to improve the quality of decisions made and the nature of supervision.
Theory X and Theory Y managers - Douglas McGregor proposed a Theory X and Theory Y model to explain basic human traits.
Theory X assumptions are:
- The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.
- Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment to get them to expend adequate effort towards the achievement of organizational objectives.
- The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all.
On the other hand, Theory Y makes different assumptions about the nature of people:
- Expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. The average human being does not inherently dislike work, which can be a source of satisfaction.
- External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing about effort. People can exercise self-direction to achieve objectives to which they are committed.
- Commitment to objectives is a result of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of those rewards is satisfaction of the self-actualization needs.
- The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept, but to seek, responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, emphasis on security and low ambition are the result of experience and are not inherent in man’s nature.
- Capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organisational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.
- Under conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potential of the average human being is only partially utilised.
Needs and goals
These various needs can be categorised in a number of ways, e.g. physiological and social motives or intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
- Extrinsic motivation is related to tangible rewards such as salary and fringe benefits, security, promotion, contract of service, the work environment and conditions of work.
- Intrinsic motivation is related to ‘psychological’ rewards such as the opportunity to use one’s ability, a sense of challenge and achievement, receiving appreciation, positive recognition and being treated in a caring and considerate manner.
Goals also influence motivation.
CLASSICAL AND MODERN THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Content theories focus on the question of what arouses, sustains and regulates goal directed behaviour, i.e. the particular things that motivate people. They offer ways to profile or analyse individuals to identify their needs.
Often criticised as being static and descriptive they appear to be linked more to job satisfaction than to work effort. Maslow, Herzberg and McGregor take a universal approach whereas McClelland and Argyris list forces and drives that will vary in relation to different individuals.
Process theories attempt to explain and describe how people start, sustain and direct behaviour aimed at the satisfaction of needs or the reduction of inner tension. The major variables in process models are incentive, drive, reinforcement and expectancy. The best-known work in this area has been concerned with Vroom’s expectancy theory, Handy’s motivation calculus and Adam’s equity theory.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - Maslow advanced the following propositions about human behaviour:
ü Man is a wanting being.
ü A satisfied need is not a motivator of behaviour, only unsatisfied needs motivate.
ü Man’s needs are arranged in a series of levels - a hierarchy of importance. As soon as needs on a lower level are met those on the next, higher level will demand satisfaction. Maslow believed the underlying needs for all human motivation to be on five general levels from lowest to highest, shown below. Within those levels, there could be many specific needs, from lowest to highest.
Physiological - the need for food, drink, shelter and relief from pain.
Safety and security – once the physical needs of the moment are satisfied, man concerns himself with protection from physical dangers with economic security, preference for the familiar and the desire for an orderly, predictable world.
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness.
Esteem or egoistic - a need both for self-esteem and the esteem of others, which involves self-confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge, autonomy, reputation, status and respect.
Self-fulfilment or self-actualisation – is the highest level in the hierarchy; these are the individual’s needs for realising his or her own potential, for continued self-development and creativity in its broadest sense.
Remember the assumptions of Maslow’s hierarchy:
- individuals have multiple needs
- needs are ordered into levels, creating a ‘hierarchy’
- a need, once satisfied, is no longer a need
To be of use, Maslow’s basic theory needs qualification to include the individual as a determining factor in motivation and behaviour. These include:
ü Levels in the hierarchy are not rigidly fixed; boundaries between them are indistinct and overlap.
ü There are individual exceptions to the general ranking of the hierarchy. Some people never progress beyond the first or second level (for example, many inhabitants of the third world); others are so obsessed with the higher needs that lower ones may go largely unnoticed.
ü Variables apart from individual needs may motivate, e.g. social standards and a sense of duty.
ü An act is seldom motivated by a single need; any act is more likely to be caused by several needs.
ü The same need will not give rise to the same response in all individuals.
ü Substitute goals may take the place of a need that is blocked.
Herzberg’s theory of motivation - The major finding of the study was that the events that led to satisfaction were,not surprisingly, of a quite different kind from those that led to dissatisfaction.One set of factors are those which, if absent, cause dissatisfaction. These factorsare related to job context. They are concerned with job environment and areextrinsic to the job itself.
They are called ‘hygiene’ factors and include such elements as:
- company policies and administration
- supervision
- working conditions
- interpersonal relations
- money, status and security
The other set of factors are those which, if present, serve to motivate the individual to superior effort and performance. These factors are related to the job content of work. They are ‘motivators’ or growth factors. Motivation factors include:
- achievement
- increased responsibility
- challenging work
- recognition for achievements
- growth and development
CONTENT AND PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Content theories - such as those of Maslow and Herzberg, stress the satisfaction of needs
Process theories - such as those of Vroom, emphasise the importance of rewards.
Content theories attempt to explain those specific things that actually motivate the individual at work. These theories are concerned with identifying people’s needs and their relative strengths, and the goals they pursue in order to satisfy these needs. Content theories place emphasis on the nature of needs and what motivates. There is the assumption that everyone responds in much the same way to motivating pressures and that there is, therefore, one best way to motivate everybody. These theories provide a prescriptive list which managers can follow in an attempt to increase productivity.
Process theories (expectancy and goal) change the emphasis from needs to the goals and processes by which workers are motivated. They attempt to explain and describe how people start, sustain and direct behaviour aimed at the satisfaction of needs or reduction of inner tension. They place emphasis on the actual process of motivation. Process theories also attempt to identify major variables that explain behaviour, but the focus is on the dynamics of how the variables are interrelated in explaining the direction, degree and persistence of effort. The major variables in process models are incentive, drive, reinforcement and expectancy.
WAYS TO MOTIVATE STAFF
Job satisfaction
Drucker suggested that employee satisfaction comes about through encouraging by 'pushing' employees to accept responsibility. There are four ingredients to this:
1) careful placement of people in jobs
2) high standards of performance in the job
3) providing the worker with the information needed to control his/her own performance.
4) opportunities for participation in decisions that will give the employee managerial vision
Designing rewarding jobs
Herzberg defines three avenues to improve staff satisfaction and motivation:
Job enrichment - is a deliberate, planned process to improve the responsibility and challenge of a job. A job may be enriched by: giving it greater variety (although this could also be described as job enlargement), allowing the employee greater freedom to decide how the job should be done, encouraging employees to participate in the planning decisions of their managers, ensuring that the employee receives regular feedback on his/her performance Koontz and Weihrich identify four elements that are necessary to make job enrichment a practical and worthwhile exercise:
· There has to be a clear understanding of people’s needs.
· If the purpose of enrichment is to increase productivity then it must be shown, at the earliest stage, that workers will share in the benefits.
· People need to be treated as individuals and involved in the planning and introduction of the schemes.
· Staff like to feel that managers are committed to the success of the programme. So managers must be seen to be enthusiastic and take part in all stages.
Job enlargement - is an attempt to widen jobs by increasing the number of operations in which a job-holder is involved. Job enlargement is a ‘horizontal’ extension of an individual’s work, whereas job enrichment is a ‘vertical’ extension.
A well-designed job should involve the following:
- giving the individual scope for setting his/her own work standards and targets
- giving the individual control over the pace and methods of working
- varying the work to encourage efficiency
- giving the individual a chance to add his/her comments about the design of the product or of the job
- providing feedback to the individual about his/her performance.
Job rotation - is the planned rotating of staff between jobs to alleviate monotony and provide a fresh job challenge. It can take two forms:
An employee might be transferred to another job after a longish period (2-4 years) in an existing job to give a new interest and challenge.
Job rotation might be regarded as a form of training where employees learned about a number of different jobs by spending six months or one year in each job before being moved on.
Participation
There are certain guidelines that must prevail if participation is to be effective in raising motivation: The participation must be seen as part of a continuing approach not just a ‘one-off’ exercise. Staff must be fed the results of their involvement as quickly and fully as possible. The participation must be genuine. People must have the ability, equipment and will to be involved.
Quality of work life
The intention is to improve all aspects of work life, especially job design, work environment, leadership attitudes, work planning and industrial relations. It is an all-embracing systems approach, which usually starts with a joint management and staff group looking at the dignity, interest and productivity of jobs.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE REWARD SYSTEM
Money
Whether in the form of wages, piecework, incentive pay, bonuses, stock options, company paid insurance or any of the other things given to people for performance, money is important. Economists, accountants and many managers tend to regard money as a prime motivator. However, behavioural scientists tend to place it low on the scale of motivators. Probably, neither view is correct as an all-embracing approach; it depends on the individual. Money in the form of pay is a powerful motivator, which can be related to the
motivational theories that we have examined. In discussing money as a motivator it is necessary to recognise its effects at two levels. Money in absolute terms, as an exact amount, is important because of its purchasing power. It is what money can buy, not money itself, that gives it value. Money is also important as an indication of status.
Incentive schemes
There are several features which are unique to money as a motivating force and which can affect workers in different ways: Money is more important to people who are seeking to establish an initial standard of living rather than those who have arrived. Most organisations use money not as a motivator, but simply as a means of ensuring adequate staffing. The need for apparent fairness encourages the use of salary grades and hence comparability of earnings. Financial incentives operate with varying strengths for different people in different situations. Much research has shown that money is not a single motivator or even a prime motivator.
(from www.goldsmithibs.com)
NOTES
1) Ralph M. Stogdill - американский психолог, в течение 30 лет являлся ведущим мировым специалистом в области исследований лидерства. Его исследовательский вклад состоит из более 50 статей, основанных на оригинальных данных, 16 книг и монографий, множества глав в сборниках. Кульминацией этого является выпуск знаменитого HandbookofLeadership (1974).
2) Warren Bennis - американский ученый, психолог, консультант в области теории организации, получивший широкое признание как первопроходец современного подхода к исследованию лидерства. Уоррен Беннис – преподаватель и почетный профессор в области делового администрирования, а также один из основателей и председатель правления Института лидерства в Университете Южной Калифорнии (University of Southern California). Автор более 30 книг, часть из них – в соавторстве с другими учеными и исследователями.
3) trait approach to leadership - подход с позиции личных качеств (1930-е гг.) объясняет лидерство наличием определенного набора общих для всех лидеров личных качеств.
4) behavioral approach to leadership - поведенческий подход (1940-50-е гг.) рассматривает лидерство как набор образцов поведения руководителя по отношению к подчиненным.
5) Taylor Frederick - американский инженер, исследователь и организатор управления, основоположник научной организации труда и управления предприятиями — менеджмента.
6) Hawthorne Studies - самый известный комплекс исследований в области изучения производительности труда. Оказал наибольшее влияние на последующее развитие этой сферы. Этот эксперимент проводился под руководством Исследовательского совета Национальной академии наук в городе Хоторн, штат Иллинойс, на заводе Западной электрической компании, начиная с 1924 г. Основной его целью было выявление способов повышения производительности за счет изменения физических условий труда на заводе.
7) Douglas McGregor - Дуглас Макгрегор был специалистом по социальной психологии, приобретшим после Второй мировой войны влияние настоящего гуру менеджмента. Наибольшую известность ученому принесла разработанная им Теория Y (основанная на предположениях “поддержки”), которую он противопоставлял Теории Х (основанной на предположениях “контроля”). Совместно с такими специалистами в теории организации как К. Аржирис и Ф. Герцберг, Д. Макгрегор показал, как организация, руководство и планирование деятельности могут создать более разнообразные и мотивированные задания с целью повышения автономности работника и его возможной креативности.
8) Adam’s equity theory - Джон Адамс, психолог, изучавший поведение и рабочую среду, выдвинул свою теорию справедливости в мотивации труда в 1963 году. Существует определенное сходство с расширенной и интерпретированной Чарльзом Хэнди предыдущей, более простой теории Маслоу, Герцберга и других пионеров психологии труда, в вопросах признания влияния тонких и переменных факторов на оценку каждого человека, их восприятия и их отношения к работе и работодателю.
9) Herzberg Frederick - американский психолог, который стал одной из самых влиятельных фигур в сфере управления бизнесом. Он добился известности как автор двухфакторной теории мотивации, которая ввела в широкое обращение понятие мотиваторов и гигиенических факторов. Самая известная публикация Герцберга 'Еще раз, как вы мотивируете сотрудников?' (One More Time, How Do You Motivate Employees?) вышла в 1968 году на основе его исследований.
10) Vroom’s expectancy theory – теория ожиданий В. Врума. Согласно ей наличие потребности не является единственным необходимым условием для мотивации. Человек также должен надеяться (ожидать), что выбранный им тип поведения действительно приведёт к намеченной цели. Врум Виктор – американский исследователь в области теории мотивации, автор книг «Труд и мотивация» (1964), «Лидерство и принятие решений» (1973), «Принятие решений как социальный процесс» (1974).
11) McClelland David – американский психолог, автор теории мотивации, которая во главу угла ставит потребности высших уровней. Дэвид МакКлелланд считал, что людям присущи три потребности: власть, успех и причастность.
12) Argyris Chris – американский психолог. Крис Аржирис разработал так называемую “теорию действия”; внес вклад в формирование теории организационного поведения, теории интервенции, организационного обучения и создание направленных на повышение организационных компетенций методов исследований.
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
1) to dramatize (v) - драматизировать, сгущать краски, преувеличивать; ярко выявить, подчеркнуть
there's no need to ̴ — незачем сгущать краски; не так уж все страшно, как вы изображаете
to ̴ oneself — эффектно подавать себя, строить из себя героя, несчастливца; «разыгрывать трагедию»
2) to serve (v) – служить, работать; (̴ as/for) выполнять назначение, использоваться; быть полезным, содействовать, благоприятствовать; годиться, подходить
to ̴ two masters — быть слугой двух господ
if my memory ̴ me right — если мне память не изменяет
to ̴ some useful purpose — послужить какой-л. полезной цели
to ̴ as a lesson to smb. — послужить кому-л. уроком
to ̴ as a pretext — служить поводом
to ̴ its turn /its purpose/ — выполнять свое назначение
to ̴ the cause of peace — служить делу мира
when occasion ̴ s — при удобном /подходящем/ случае
3) devotion (n) – преданность, приверженность
absolute / blind / complete / deep / great / slavish / thorough / undying / unswerving / utter ̴ —слепая, безоговорочная преданность
to demonstrate / display / show ̴ — выказывать преданность
̴ to the cause — беззаветная преданность делу
4) inborn (adj) – врожденный, свойственный, природный; наследственный
̴ ability — врожденная способность
̴ aptitudes — природные способности
an ̴ sense of rhythm — врожденное чувство ритма
5) to emerge (v) – появляться, возникать; выйти, выбраться; выясняться, выявляться
to ̴ unscathed — выйти сухим из воды
the sun ̴ from the clouds — солнце вышло из-за облаков
here ̴ s the question as to... — тут возникает вопрос относительно...
there ̴ s a necessity of... — появляется необходимость в...
from this report he ̴ s as an able administrator — из доклада явствует, что он способный администратор
from these facts it ̴ s... — из этих фактов следует...
to ̴ from poverty — выйти из нищеты
6) assertive (adj) – положительный, утвердительный; напористый, самоуверенный
in an ̴ form — в утвердительной форме
̴ manner — самоуверенная манера
to speak in an ̴ tone — говорить тоном, не допускающим возражений
7) equality (n) – равенство, паритетность, равноправие
on an ̴ with smb. — на равных условиях, правах с кем-л.
to achieve / attain ̴ — добиться равенства
racial ̴ — расовое равноправие
religious ̴ — религиозное равноправие
total ̴ — всеобщее равенство
̴ in pay — равная зарплата
the ̴ of men — равенство людей
̴ between the sexes — равноправие мужчин и женщин
̴ of treatment — равенство в обращении
8) to hamper (v) - препятствовать, мешать, затруднять
to ̴ the progress of business — препятствовать успеху дела
his mind is ̴ ed by prejudice — он человек с предрассудками
9) to mediate (v) – быть посредником, посредничать; быть связующим звеном
to ̴ between two warring countries — посредничать между двумя воюющими странами
the government ̴ d between the workers and the employers — государство выступило посредником между рабочими и предпринимателями
to ̴ between the old and the new — служить связующим звеном между старым и новым
10) to doom (v) - обрекать, осуждать; предназначать, предопределять
to be ̴ ed to failure — быть обреченным на провал
to be ̴ ed to die — быть обреченным
11) preservation (n) – сохранение, охрана, защита
the ̴ of the country’s national interests — охрана национальных интересов страны
̴ of wild-life — охрана природы
12) tenet (n) – принцип, догмат, убеждение
basic / fundamental ̴ — основной принцип, главное правило
the ̴ s of modern science — принципы современной науки
the basic ̴ is that all people are equal — основной принцип провозглашает равноправие всех людей.
13) to alleviate (v) – облегчать, смягчать; ослаблять
to ̴ pain — облегчить боль
to ̴ sorrows — облегчать горе
GRAMMAR EXERCISES
Task 1. Change the sentences to build Conditionals, use adverbs of time if necessary.Translate sentences into English. The first two are shown as examples:
- Личные качества лидера не гарантируют успех, а их относительная важность в значительной мере зависит от других факторов.
Если бы личные качества лидера гарантировали успех, то и их относительная важность в значительной мере завесила бы от других факторов.
- Задача организации представляется не только в том, чтобы распознать эффективного лидера в процессе отбора персонала, но и в том, чтобы научить его навыкам успешного управления людьми.
Если бы пару лет назад задача организации представлялась бы в распознавании эффективного лидера в процессе отбора персонала, то была бы вероятность научить его навыкам успешного управления людьми.
- В начале 1960-х гг. поведенческий подход к лидерству стал рассматриваться как ограниченный, так как не учитывал целого ряда других важных факторов, определяющих эффективность управленческой деятельности в той или иной ситуации.
- Эффективным окажется лидер, который сумеет использовать возникшую ситуацию. Для этого необходимо хорошо знать способности подчиненных, их возможности для выполнения поставленной задачи, пределы своего влияния на исполнителей.
- Легко согласиться, что настоящий лидер должен иметь последователей. Тогда лидерство можно оценивать наличием самих последователей или командой, идущей за ним.
- Найти четкий ответ на этот вопрос не так просто, так как одни и те же качества лидера могут пониматься разными людьми совершенно по-разному.
- Корпоративный лидер, который хочет оставаться эффективным длительное время, должен уметь быстро адаптироваться к изменчивым обстоятельствам и гибко варьировать свое поведение.
- Считается, что женщины больше думают о чувствах своих сотрудников, обладают лучшими навыками общения и поэтому более ориентированы на отношения. Мужчин же часто рассматривают как жестких, авторитарных лидеров, которые не особенно обращают внимание на чувства своих подчиненных и намного меньше беспокоятся об их взаимоотношениях.
- Из-за половой дискриминации женщина должна быть «в два раза лучше, чем мужчина», чтобы преуспеть.
- Перед компаниями встает задача выдержать натиск перемен и суметь сохранить свою конкурентоспособность в постоянно меняющихся условиях. Поэтому в последние десятилетия бизнес столкнулся с необходимостью создания такой корпоративной культуры, которая всячески способствует развитию лидерских качеств.
- Руководители преуспевающих компаний не дожидаются, пока подходящий лидер свалится с неба. Они активно ищут людей с лидерскими способностями и предоставляют им карьерные возможности, позволяющие максимально раскрыть их потенциал.
- Положительную роль играют также личные связи, которые человек обычно успевает установить как внутри компании, так и за ее пределами. Когда такие возможности получают многие сотрудники организации, то их деловые контакты помогают наладить в коллективе прочные неформальные отношения.
- Чтобы стимулировать участие менеджеров в деятельности по воспитанию будущих лидеров, руководители компаний стараются отмечать и поощрять сотрудников, наиболее отличившихся во время подготовки новых кадров.
- Когда люди узнают, что в дальнейшем их продвижение по службе будет зависеть от умения «взращивать» молодые кадры с задатками лидеров, то за воспитательную работу берутся даже те, кто утверждал, будто лидером нужно родиться, а обучение тут не поможет.
- Новый лидер скорее всего может появиться в тот период, когда старый лидер не соответствует своему руководящему положению как стратег, эксперт, планировщик и администратор.
Task 2. Continue the sentences using active vocabulary and words from the texts. Pay attention to Conditionals:
1. If you have the desire and willpower,…………………….
2. If he had wanted to inspire his workers into higher levels of teamwork several years ago, ………
3. Good leaders are continually working and studying to improve their leadership skills, unless ………
4. The skills and knowledge processed by the leader could have been influenced by his or her attributes or traits, provided……………
5. Unless you have an honest understanding of who you are, what you know, and what you can do, …………
6. If subordinates do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, …………….
7. Until he had to convince his followers, not himself or his superiors, that he was worthy of being followed, ………………
8. As long as a person lacks motivation, …………….
9. If she had exhibited strength and could have inspired belief in her subordinates while being the leader of that company several years ago, …………..
10. As long as your responsibility extends beyond leading the people, ……..
Task 3. Combine the sentences to build different Conditional sentences. Add adverbs of time if necessary:
1. Leadership styles are not something to be tried on like so many suits, to see which fits. Rather, they should be adapted to the particular demands of the situation, the particular requirements of the people involved and the particular challenges facing the organization.
2. While further research has identified more specific types of leadership, this early study was very influential and established three major leadership styles.
3. In the study, schoolchildren were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian, democratic or laissez-fair leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project while researchers observed the behavior of children in response to the different styles of leadership.
4. Choosing the right style, at the right time in the right situation is a key element of leader effectiveness. That’s not what most people do—they have one style used in all situations.
5. Manager and leader are two completely different roles, although we often use the terms interchangeably.
6. Sometimes a project is a long series of obstacles and opportunities coming at you at high speed, and you need every ounce of your collective hearts and minds and skill sets to get through it.
7. Not only do the greatest teammates allow different leaders to emerge consistently based on their strengths, but also they realize that leadership can and should be situational, depending on the needs of the team.
8. A manager’s leadership style is responsible for 30% of the company’s bottom-line profitability. Imagine how much money and effort a company spends on new processes, efficiencies, and cost-cutting methods and compare that to simply inspiring managers to be more kinetic with their leadership styles.
9. While reinventing himself as a leader, Paul showed perseverance and persistence and never lost sight of his goal. He surrounded himself with people who shared his values but did not necessarily act in the same ways.
10. When I present and follow a clear structure with limited participation in shaping the content or outcome of the event, people appear to be much more satisfied and my work appears dramatically easier.
Task 4. Build sentences using the words below. Use all types of Conditional Sentences:
- to direct and influence, to be overmanaged and underled,an effective manager, motivational skills
- effective leaders, managerial skills, to channel the energy, dynamic engagement, leadership skills.
- personal characteristic, inborn personality traits, laypersons, to emerge, effective leaders
- to uncover traits, to distinguish leaders from followers, to attain leadership positions, indisputable leaders, assertive
- constellation of traits, to occupy a leadership position, experience, to isolate leadership traits, to possess
- performance, to be related to, supervisory ability, appropriate, effective leader
- to match the requirements, to emerge as leaders, equality of ability and opportunity, persistent
- to hamper, potential leaders, to perceive, employees, evident, effective leaders
- to figure out, to determine, to delegate tasks, employers, subordinates
- to communicate, to motivate, followers, to be valued, managers
- to carry out tasks, to lead, effectively, to mediate disputes, leaders
- to ensure, temperament, to doom, task, social function
- managers, supervise, satisfactorily, to put emphasis, to control subordinates.
- to seek relationship, to allow, to affect, undoubtedly, background
- primarily, values, the needs of the organization, to take a role, characteristics of subordinates
- greater participation, crave independence, decision-making responsibilities, experienced, to deal with
- identify with the organization's goals, conditions, initially, to adopt, to modify
- employees, gain, organizational commitment, to address, cohesiveness
- the nature of the group’s tasks, the pressures of time, to affect, attitudes, to lean toward
- top ranking executives, to lack the motivational skills, leadership traits, to fail to uncover, shared leadership
Task 5. Fill in the gaps with appropriate grammar form. Afterwards translate sentences into Russian:
1. If this style ________ summed up in one phrase, it would be “People come first.”
2. Assuming that you are leading well, you __________ have just one leadership style.
3. If you _________ aware of these different ways of leading, you can adapt your style to manage circumstances and advance your intended goals.
4. Unless the foundation ____ solid, viable, and ____ totally congruent with what follows, then everything built onto it is prone to wobble, and at times can fall over completely.
5. Until it _______ packaged as a suggestion to address 'disaffection' among young people, the idea _______ essentially be concerned with leadership - or more precisely a failing leadership.
6. Could leadership have be daunting for many people simply because no-one else was issuing the aims last century, leadership ______ often ______ meant you had to create your own from a blank sheet of paper.
7. As long as you set low standards, you _____ to blame for low standards in your people.
8. Providing you seek one singlemost important behaviour that will rapidly earn you respect and trust among your people, this _____ it: Always give your people the credit for your achievements and successes.
9. If you ______ taken the blame and accepted responsibility for any failings or mistakes that your people made at the meeting yesterday, you _______ ______ never publicly blamed another person for a failing.
10. You have to express things in terms of what should be done, not what should not be done. If you accentuate the negative, people _______ more likely to veer towards it.
Task 6. Translate sentences from Russian into English:
1. Если женщина практикует стереотипный «маскулинный» стиль руководства, если она типичный «босс» и ориентирована на задачу, ее оценивают более негативно, чем руководителя-мужчину с таким же стилем.
2. Мужчины чувствуют себя очень неуютно, если женщина использует тот же руководящий стиль, какой обычно позволяют себе мужчины.
3. Когда мужчина утверждался во главе группы и действовал настойчиво, другие члены группы реагировали благосклонно. Если же подобным образом действовала женщина, то члены группы, особенно мужчины, реагировали гораздо более негативно.
4. Те формулы успеха, что действовали еще вчера, сегодня себя изживают. В итоге, если сегодня действовать вчерашними методами или даже чуть лучше, — это не приведет к успеху.
5. Если при этом какой-либо индивид сумеет обеспечить достижение целей, или безопасность группы в силу своих личностных качеств (храбрости, умений, знаний, уверенности в себе и т. д.), тогда он вероятнее всего станет лидером данной группы.
6. Если проблемы, с которыми сталкивается группа, очень сложны по своему диапазону, функции лидерства обычно распределяются между несколькими лицами
7. При условии, что лидер часто принимает на себя обязанности разработчика различных методов и средств, вся группа достигнет преследуемых целей.
8. До тех пор, пока лидер является единственным хранителем плана действий и один знает дальнейшие пути, все остальные члены группы будут знакомы лишь с отдельными, не связанными между собой частями плана.
9. Если бы лидер не прибегал к услугам различных заместителей, специалистов и консультантов в прошлом, то сам выбор этих экспертов второй ступени не характеризовал бы способности самого руководителя.
10. При условии, что члены группы зависят от человека, технические знания и квалификация которого необходимы для осуществления групповых целей, вокруг этого лица будет происходит поляризация власти, которую он может использовать для укрепления своей роли лидера.
Task 7. Read the text “9 Traits That Define Great Leadership”. Summarize the information of every trait and transform it in such a way to build Conditional sentences:
Many leaders are competent but few qualify as remarkable. If you want to join the ranks of the best of the best, make sure you embody all these qualities all the time. It isn't easy, but the rewards can be truly phenomenal.
1. Awareness. There is a difference between management and employees, bosses and workers. Leaders understand the nature of this difference and accept it; it informs their image, their actions, and their communication. They conduct themselves in a way that sets them apart from their employees--not in a manner that suggests they are better than others, but in a way that permits them to retain an objective perspective on everything that's going on in their organization.
2. Decisiveness. All leaders must make tough decisions. It goes with the job. They understand that in certain situations, difficult and timely decisions must be made in the best interests of the entire organization, decisions that require a firmness, authority, and finality that will not please everyone. Extraordinary leaders don't hesitate in such situations. They also know when not to act unilaterally but instead foster collaborative decision-making.
3. Empathy. Extraordinary leaders praise in public and address problems in private. The best leaders guide employees through challenges, always on the lookout for solutions to foster the long-term success of the organization. Rather than making things personal when they encounter problems, or assigning blame to individuals, leaders look for constructive solutions and focus on moving forward.
4. Accountability. Extraordinary leaders take responsibility for everyone's performance, including their own. They follow up on all outstanding issues, check in on employees, and monitor the effectiveness of company policies and procedures. When things are going well, they praise. When problems arise, they identify them quickly, seek solutions, and get things back on track.
5. Confidence. Not only are the best leaders confident, but their confidence is contagious. Employees are naturally drawn to them, seek their advice, and feel more confident as a result. When challenged, they don’t give in too easily, because they know their ideas, opinions and strategies are well-informed and the result of much hard work. But when proven wrong they take responsibility and quickly act to improve the situations within their authority.
6. Optimism. The very best leaders are source of positive energy. They communicate easily. They are intrinsically helpful and genuinely concerned for other people’s welfare. They always seem to have a solution and always know what to say to inspire and reassure. They avoid personal criticism and pessimistic thinking, and look for ways to gain consensus and get people to work together efficiently and effectively as a team.
7. Honesty. Strong leaders treat people how they want to be treated. They are extremely ethical and believe that honesty, effort, and reliability form the foundation of success. They embody these values so overtly that no employee doubts their integrity for a minute. They share information openly and avoid spin control.
8. Focus. Extraordinary leaders plan ahead and they are supremely organized. They think through multiple scenarios and the possible impacts of their decisions, while considering viable alternatives and making plans and strategies--all targeted toward success. Once prepared, they establish strategies, processes, and routines so that high performance is tangible, easily defined, and monitored. They communicate their plans to key players and have contingency plans in the event last-minute changes require a new direction (which they often do).
9. Inspiration. Put it all together and what emerges is a picture of the truly inspiring leader: someone who communicates clearly, concisely, and often, and by doing so motivates everyone to give their best all the time. They challenge their people by setting high but attainable standards and expectations, and then giving them the support, tools, training, and latitude to pursue those goals and become the best employees they can possibly be.
Task 8. Transform direct speech into indirect one:
1. Catherine the Great said: "... Praise loudly, blame softly."
2. Theodore Roosevelt once pronounced: "People ask the difference between a leader and
