Tradition is very strong in rendering this group of words. They are often rendered according to the usage of earlier days, e.g. Dover ■ , Texas - , Hull - , etc.
But in some cases the tradition has been abandoned in favour of transcription. So Virginia is now , not , and Hull is often rendered as . Extended names are often translated: the Cape of Good Hope - .
Rendering of the Names of Institutions. Periodicals, Hotels. Streets, etc.
These classes of proper names are usually transcribed, e.g.
General Motors - , Times - . Hotel Carlton - , Bayswater Road - .
But the "telling names" of old inns as well as the names of streets in historical novels are translated; The Red Lion - . The "Economist" publishing office is in Threadneedle street - , but "tailors lived in Threadneedle street" -
Translation of terms
Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science. They are characterised by a tendency to be monosemantic in a given branch of science and technology and therefore easily call forth the required concept: calorie - , equator - , polysemantic - , etc. But it should be taken into consideration that one and the same term may have different meaning in different branches of science, e.g. line 1) , 2) . In some cases the recent terminological explosion has produced polysemy even within the same branch (e.g. - in electronics may be keep-alive electrode or trigger electrode).
There is another group of words of terminological nature: names of animals, birds, etc, e.g. tiger-, cat-, swallow-. These words may acquire a figurative meaning in the source - language which has no equivalent in the target-language, e.g. tiger had a transferred meaning (now rare) "smart-liveried small boy as groom" (Concise Oxford Dictionary) - , -.
Names of plants also belong to this group: oak - , lily-of-the-valley - , as well as names of natural elements, names of the days of the week, of months and numerals: oxygen - , Thursday - , July - , thousand - , million -.
Despecialization of terms in news media may occasionally pose a translation problem (the launching pad for his career- ).
LECTURE 7
TRANSLATION OF POLYSEMANTIC, PSEUDO-INTERNATIONAL WORDS AND "NON-EQUIVALENTS"
Translation of Polysemantic Words
Different meanings of polysemantic words are revealed in the context. The term "context" is understood as the minimum stretch of speech diagnosing each individual meaning of the word. The context individualizes the meanings, brings them out.
The context reveals concrete or abstract meanings of a word, its direct or transferred meaning, e.g. the word "truth" is used in its concrete everyday meaning in the phrase "Tell me the truth" - , while in the following sentence "To understand and to know the reality, it is necessary to have a theory of knowledge corresponding to truth (R. Fox, Marxism and literature) the word "truth" is used in its abstract philosophical meaning . , , , . In the following examples the context reveals direct and transferred meanings of the word "to cripple". "Smith was crippled in the war" - (direct meaning), "Reactionaries cripple the national movement in Africa" - (transferred meaning).
|
|
|
The context also reveals a free or bound use of the word. He made a pace or two forward, (free) - . kept pace with the times (bound) - . In this latter case the word "pace" forms part of a phraseological unity and is translated by a corresponding phraseological unity.
Here are some more examples. The adjective "brittle" developed a new figurative meaning used to describe "tone", "looks", "temper", etc.
"He has a brittle - easily loses his temper. (Hornby)
A brittle smile - - (a forced smile) Kathleen was as white as Cade had been the day Scarlett called, white and hard and brittle(M. Mitchell) , . , . The context is not always limited to a minimum stretch of speech (microcontext). Sometimes macrocontext (a paragraph, a chapter or even a whole book) is necessary for a correct interpretation of the meaning. Describing Becky Sharp Thackeray writes: "The wretched woman was in a brilliant full toilet". Knowing Thackeray's negative attitude toward Becky, of the two meanings of the word "wretched" - (1) , (2) the latter should be used in the translation of this sentence: // .
Translation of Pseudo-International Words
There is a distinct group of words, which constitute a special difficulty for the translator, the so-called pseudo-international words. As distinct from genuine international words which have a more or less similar phonetic form and carry the same meaning (electronics -, cybernetics - , algebra - , the pseudo-international words differ in meaning from language to language either completely, e.g. commutator- , complexion - , or partially elevator- 1) , 2) .
They are known as the translator's "false friends". Although they are warned against them, translators are often deceived by formal resemblance into making errors. Here are some examples of such words and their equivalents in Russian: There were attempts to sabotage key services in Santiago (the Economist, 1974) - .
|
|
|
We are told that BBC television this autumn will give a massive coverage to the general election (Morning Star, 1968) - , -- .
The Russian word is monosemantic and has positive connotations. The meaning of the English "progress" is neutral and can apply to any movement as can be seen from the title of Hogarth' picture "Rake's Progress" - , or from the following examples: Her progress about London during that first week was one thrilling adventure (H. Walpole) Ÿ .
Sometimes the meaning of international words is identical in English and in Russian but the collocation pattern is different which prevents the use of the Russian word in translation.
Never before in the history of the world have there been so many persons engaged in the translation of both secular and religious materials (E. Nida and Ch. Taber, The Theory and Practice of Translation).
Although the meanings of the words "religious" - and" materials" - are identical, the collocation is quite impossible in Russian. An adequate translation would be: , .
Rendering of Contextual Meanings
A contextual meaning arises in the context. It should not be regarded as part of the semantic structure of the word. Every word possesses an enormous potentiality for generating new contextual meanings. These occasional contextual meanings are not arbitary, but are always predetermined by the semantic structure of the word. It largely depends upon the semantic context. A contextual meaning possible in one language is impossible in another.
In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages (D.W.) .
In this sentence the contextual meaning of the word "hostage" is the "victim". This contextual is evidently implicit in its dictionary meaning. A similar contextual meaning cannot be generated by the Russian word . Thus the word is the only possible equivalent.
The word "exploitation" acquires an unexpected contextual meaning in the following sentence: Britain's worldwide exploitation was shaken by colonial Liberation Movement. (D.W.)
The contextual meaning was formed metonymically: every colonial system is based on exploitation which is the foundation of colonial power. The Russian word can not generate similar contextual meaning. A possible equivalent will also be formed metonymically: - .
Contextual meanings often produce a strong effect, performing a stylistic function of "deceived expectancy". The translator is confronted with a double difficulty: he should avoid toning it down and must not violate the norms of the target-language.
Translation of "Non-equivalents"
The so-called "non-equivalents" are the words of the source-language which either have no equivalents in the target language or no equivalent denotatum in the target culture. They may be divided into two groups. The first group consists of the so-called realia-words denoting things, objects, features of national life, customs, habits, etc., e.g. House of Commons, thane, coroner, teach-in, drive-in, cricket, etc.
The second group embraces words, which for some linguistic reason have no equivalent in the target language: conservationist, readership, glimpse, etc.
Three Ways Of Rendering Non-Equivalents
1. By direct borrowing (transliteration or transcription): impeachment - , thane - , mayor - , know-how - - . The latter is now used as a term in official documents, trade agreements etc. But the translator should not abuse his right to use loan words and should avoid overburdening the Russian text with numerous and often unnecessary borrowings. This tendency for indiscriminate borrowings of words denoting foreign realia was strongly opposed by the famous Soviet translator I.A. Kashkin. (.. , , , , 1952, 2.)
|
|
|
Such borrowings, as -, - are frequently not understood by the general reader. It is often better to resort to interpreting translation to make the notion clear: tribalism- , press-release - , teach-in - .
2. By translation loans. House of Commons - , backbencher - , brain-drain - .
3. By descriptive or interpreting translation. Landslide - , a stringer (Am.) - , , wishful thinking .
The action of Congress and of North Carolina and Tennessee statesmen, aided by gifts of wise conservationists, have set this land aside as a Great Smoky National Park. (National Geographic, 1964).
- , , .
LECTURE 8
