| 1. Agencies (agents) of socialization | a) a lifelong process by which, through contact with others, one becomes a self-aware, knowlegeble human being, skilled in the ways of a given culture and environment. |
| 2. Bases type (of personality) | b) a theory that human behavior is guided by expectations held by other people. The expectations correspond to different roles individuals perform in their daily life. |
| 3. Individual | c) structured groups or context within which significant processes of socialization occur |
| 4. Individuality | d) a particular representative of mankind |
| 5. Primary socialization | e) a socialization process which occures in infancy and childhood and is the most intense period of cultural learning |
| 6. Socialization | f) a set of qualities or characteristics distinguishing one person from another at the biological, psychological, social and other levels |
| 7. Re-socialization | g) a set of typical personality’s qualities which are dominant in the society and most fully meets the demands of a given society |
| 8. Role theory | h) a socialization process which occurs when a person learns new roles, values or habits instead of those badly learnt before |
| 9. Secondary socialization | i) a socialization process which takes place later in childhood and into maturity |
| 10. Psychological analysis | j) a psycological perspective of Sigmund Freud who considered a person striving for getting satisfaction, with the society as a system of constrains and taboos |
Iv Translate from Russian into English
- Ролевая теория личности занимает значительное место в социологии.
- В этой теории социальное поведение личности определяется двумя основными понятиями: «социальный статус» и «социальная роль».
- Статус – это положение человека в обществе, его права и обязанности.
- Роль – это поведенческая сторона статуса.
- Каждый человек выполняет множество ролей.
- Поведение человека может быть различным в зависимости от его социальной роли в данный момент (роль отца, мужа, руководителя, изобретателя, члена политической партии и т.д.)
- Человек может иметь несколько статусов, но чаще всего только один определяет его положение в обществе.
- Главный статус часто обусловлен должностью человека.
- Концепция социальной роли проста, люди занимают различные положения, с которыми связаны поведения.
- Роль уже статуса. Каждый статус имеет множество ролей.
- Многообразие ролей ведет к внутреннему конфликту личности.
- Противоречащие друг другу социальные роли являются причиной внутренней борьбы личности.
V Communicative practice
- What influences a personality most of all? (family, school, peers, mass media, etc.)
- Why is the role of parents so important?
- What organizations can influence a person if he/she was badly brought up?
- Do you agree that the main status of a person is determined by his/her profession?
- Is your behaviour the same or different in the presence of other people (your parents, friends, teachers, etc.)
- Are you often imbarassed?
Unit VII
Understanding of social stratification and social inequality (part I)
TEXT 1
The grouping of people together is as old as the society itself. Racial grouping is one way that societies have done this, the example is the American South before the US civil war. Religion is another way if parts of Northern Ireland until the 1960s are meant. One common way is through the caste system to be found in India. Here, social differentiation is stressed by the caste that each individual is born into, for instance, the Brahmin caste is the top caste and the untouchables are the bottom caste. Caste membership in this life is the result of good or bad conduct in the previous life. In any medieval country, the feudal system of land ownership meant that the nobility of land owners, with its sense of family tradition, privilege and knightly conduct became the dominant ruling group.
Social stratification is the dividing of a society into levels or strata based on wealth or power. It is regarded quite differently by the principal perspectives of sociology. Proponents of structural functionalism suggest that since social stratification exists in all societies, a hierarchy must be beneficial in helping to stabilize their existence. Conflict theorists emphasize the inaccessibility of resources and lack of social mobility in many stratified societies. Anyway, all theorists share the opinion that social stratification has to do with inequality.
Social inequality refers to the distribution of material wealth in a society. For instance, the current level of inequality is as follows: the richest 1% of people (with an average income of US $24,000) earns more than the poorest 60% of households in the world combined. Another illustration of this difference is the fact that the world’s three richest people alone possess more assets than 600 million least wealthy people combined.
Although there appears to be a consensus of what constitutes social inequality, there is far less agreement over the causes of it. Many theorists accept inequality as a given, but some of them see inequality as the natural consequence of Social Darwinism, proved by gender, age, IQ or the wealth of nations. Others argue that inequality is in large part the negative consequence of destructive state policies (such as capitalism) and wars.
Some modern economic theories, such as the neoclassical school, have suggested that functioning of economy requires a certain level of unemployment; other theories, such as Keynesianism and socialism, dispute this alleged positive role of unemployment.
However, sociologists share the opinion that as soon as the society was reaching a higher economic and cultural level, social inequality between people was getting more and more obvious. Historically, inequality in a group might have been caused by division of labour: the more skilled the person was, the more and better products he could produce and exchange for more wealth. If the person was wealthy, he could impose his will on others and acquire more wealth that entailed professional, territorial, religious and other differentiations.
More important is the fact that wealth always entails power in the political sphere. In his famous work, On the Origins of Inequality among Men, R. Dahrendorf asserts that “the system of inequality which we call social stratification is only a secondary consequence of the social structure of power” and modern Russia is a good example of it.
A person is viewed to show that he belongs to a certain stratum by using both objective and subjective criteria. The objective criteria are those to describe the level of education, income, property, power or occupation, the subjective ones are those to describe the level of somebody’s honour, reputation or prestige in the eyes of other people. Theories differ in numbers of criteria but they agree in understanding that each stratum includes only those people who have approximately equal income, power, education, prestige etc. seeing them as the basic criteria of social stratification.
In other words, social stratification has to do with ranking of people as individuals or groups in the society. All societies everywhere show some degree of stratification. Some societies are egalitarian, some are highly stratified. For instance, in the primitive communal society inequality was insignificant, and social stratification did not exist, so the society was egalitarian. All complex societies are stratified societies with a high level of inequality.
Inequality gave birth to castes, then to classes. But the principal sociological perspectives interpret this concept differently. M. Weber spoke of a class as an entity comprising people who are cohered by economic interests in acquiring goods or getting income and who interact in the labour or goods market. In the society, classes as well as strata have a certain social status which is determined by a corresponding way of life. That’s why some theorists define social stratification as the hierarchical arrangement of social classes, castes, and strata within a society.
The idea of stratification had primarily a distinct ideological shade because it appeared as a counterbalance to the idea of a class society suggested by K. Marx. Social strata showing objective distinctions of various groups of the population within a certain class were differentiated with regards to social mobility that lead to the erosion of class boundaries. For instance, a worker after he has got a higher education can work as a manager, a citizen can move to the countryside to start up agro-business etc. In other words, the previous, clear-cut boundaries existing, for instance, between peasants and landlords to differentiate their class distinctions for many generations ahead, do not exist in a modern society. It means that class boundaries have lost their sense keeping only their theoretical character while the concept of a social stratum has a definite meaning. It shows that social strata or layers do fix various groups of people differentiating from each other by their income, role, status and other social qualities.
Social strata can be as large as to be close in meaning to social classes, for example, the bourgeoisie in its division to very wealthy and petty ones, or the working class including the working aristocracy and the proletariat, or the peasantry etc. Other strata may represent intra-class or inter-class layers, for example, representatives of intelligensia, service workers etc. At the same time within a certain stratum some substrata can exist, so the intelligentsia can be differentiated according to the area of activities as industrial, managerial, scientific etc. Some castes, marginal layers such as the homeless, criminals or lumpens can also be viewed as social strata.
I Vocabulary
1. ratial grouping – объединение, группирование по расовому признаку
2. assets – активы, имущество
3. alleged positive role – признанная позитивная роль
4. to impose one’s will on others – налагать свою власть (волю) на других
5. egalitarian society – общество равноправия
6. to be cohered – быть объединенным, связанным
7. bourgeoisier – буржуазия
8. aristocracy – аристократия
9. proletariat – пролетариат
10. peasantry – крестьянство
11. intelligensia – интеллигенция
12. marginal layer – маргинальная прослойка
II COMPREHENSION CHECK
13. What is social stratification?
14. What does social inequality refer to?
15. What do different theorists think of the causes of social inequality?
16. What are the objective criteria according to which a person belongs to a certain stratum?
17. What are the subjective ones?
18. In what societies is social inequality more obvious?
19. How did Weber discribe a class?
20. Give examples of social strata.
TEXT 2
