Syntax is a linguistic science which studies the sentence and combinability of words, various types of sentences, their structure and meaning and the syntactical functions of part of speech. The sentence is the basic unit of syntax which is capable of expressing a message containing some kind of information about situations of objective reality. With a help of a sentence one can make a statement, a command, and request or ask a question for obtaining some information. The sentence, as I.K. Kharitonov points out, is the smallest unit of speech communication consisting of one or more words which is characterized by a definite structural (grammatical) and intonational pattern, predication, modality and conveys a relatively completed thought. The communicative aspect of the sentence is its distinguishing qualitative characteristic and predicativity is as essential a part of the content of the sentence as intonation is of its form [9, p. 221]. Sentences may be regarded from the point of view of their communicative value and from the point of view of their structure. From the point of view of their role in the process of communication sentences may be divided into: declarative (affirmative or negative), interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. According to their structure sentences may be classified into simple (two-member and one-member, complete and elliptical) and composite (compound, complex and compound-complex). One shouldn’t confuse elliptical and one-member sentences. Elliptical sentences are considered to be colloquial variants of the corresponding two-member sentences because any missing part of them can be restored from the previous context while no missing component of a one-member sentence can be retraced from the context. E.g.: 1. What are you doing? – Reading a letter. (a two-member elliptical sentence), but 1. Another cold day (a one-member nominative sentence). 2. To discuss such delicate things in public! (a one-member infinitival sentence). 3. Finding fault with other people! (a one-member gerundial sentence).
The composite sentence, as different from a simple one, has two or more predicative centers, i.e. it is a polypredicative construction and thus expresses a complex act of thought. All composite sentences are classed into compound and complex sentences with syndetic and asyndetic types of clause connection. Compound sentences are structures of coordination with two or more clauses which are syntactically equivalent, i.e. none of them is below the other in rank. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate. From the point of view of relationships between coordinate clauses four types of coordinate connection can be distinguished: copulative, disjunctive, adversative and causative-consecutive.
1. Copulative connection expresses that two ideas are connected. The events described in copulative connection may be simultaneous or successive. The copulative connectors are: and; both … and; not only … but; nor; then; moreover; likewise; as well as. E.g.: It was high summer, and the hay harvest was almost over.
2. Adversative connection joins clauses which contain opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative conjunctions are: but, yet, still, nevertheless, however: She often enjoyed Ann’s company, yet the child made her nervous.
3. Disjunctive connection denotes choice, usually between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive connections are: or, otherwise, else, either … or: You must fasten the boat to that pole, otherwise the current will carry it away.
4. Causative-consecutive coordination, as N.A. Kobrina points out, joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason, and the other – a consequence. Such clauses may be joined by the conjunction “ for ”: 1. The windows were open, for it was very hot in the room. 2. There will be plenty of time to do all this, for Martin was not in a position to marry.
Thus, by coordination the clauses are arranged as units of a syntactically equal rank. The compound sentence is built up on the principle of coordination. The compound sentence is derived from two or more base sentences which are connected either syndetically or asyndetically. The base sentences joined into one compound sentence lose their independent status and become coordinate clauses – parts of a composite sentence.
Complex sentences are structures of subordination with two or more immediate constituents which are not syntactically equivalent – one of them is the principal clause to which the other is joined as a subordinate clause either by subordinating connectors or asydentically. The principal clause dominates the subordinate clause positionally, but it doesn’t mean that by its syntactic status it must express the central informative part of communication. Of all the problems discussed in linguistic literature in connection with the complex sentence, the central one concerns the principles of classification of subordinate clauses. Usually the classification of complex sentences is based on the type of the subordinate clause, its functions and meaning, and also on the conjunctions and connecting words. Subordinate clauses are correlative with parts of the sentence, but unlike the latter, they express the idea of an object, quality or circumstances in a way of a certain situation, which finds its expression in the subject-predicate structure. Traditionally these numerous types of clauses are arranged in three groups: nominal clauses, attributive clauses and adverbial clauses.
Nominal clauses function as nouns in various syntactical positions. They are subdivided into subject clauses, predicate clauses and object clauses. Thus, a subject clause performs the function of the subject to the predicate of the principal clause which is devoid of its own subject. Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether; who, what, which; when, where, how, why. Complex sentences with subject clauses may be of two patterns:
1. With a subject clause preceding the predicate of the principal clause. For example: What she loved best in the world just then was reading (Galsworthy).
2. With a subject clause in a final position. In such cases it is introduced by the anticipatory it. For example: It was evident that he didn’t understand the essence of the matter (London).
Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The link-verb is in the principal clause. The predicative clause together with the link-verb forms a compound nominal predicate to the subject of the principal clause. Predicative clauses are introduced by the conjunctions that, whether, if, as if, who, what, which, when, where, how, why.
Predicative clauses may occur as parts of two structurally different kinds of sentences:
1. They may follow the principal clause in which the subject is a notional word. The predicative clause then gives a qualitative characteristic of the subject. For example: The thing to be settled in now is whether anything can be done to save him (Dreiser). The fact is that they are witnesses of this incident.
2. Predicative clauses may follow the principal clause in which the subject is expressed by the personal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation. For example: It seems as if all these years I had been living under false pretences (Cronin).
Object clauses have the function of an object to the predicate of a principal clause. Object clauses can be introduced asydentically or by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether; who, what, which; when, where, how, why. For example: 1. He said there was nothing much the matter with me (Maxwell). 2. She wondered whether Steve knew or understood what had happened (Gordon). 3. He wondered why he should look back… (Wilson)
Object clauses may also refer:
1) to a non-finite form of the verb (an infinitive, a gerund, a participle): 1. I formed the habit of calling on him in the evening to discusswhat I had heard (Leacock). 2. I ventured on askingwhy he was in such a hurry to get back to town (Collins). 3. Mr. Bruff looked my way apparently wonderingwhether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with my aunt (Collins);
2) to some adjectives expressing desire, feeling, perception, assurance (anxious, certain, sure jealous, sorry, pleased) and to statives (afraid, aware). For example: 1. They were not surewhat the morrow would bring forth (Dreiser). 2. She was awarethat someone else was there (Eliot). 3. The poor girl is anxiousthat you should be at her wedding (Collins).
An object clause may be introduced by a preposition. E.g.: I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to disclose (Eliot).
As a rule object, subject and predicative clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause.
Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to some noun or pronoun in the principal clause which is called an antecedent. Attributive clauses are introduced by the connectives who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as, when, where. The choice of the conjunction depends on the categorical meaning of the antecedent: 1. A quick light step approached the room in which I was (Dickens). 2. He was under the impression that an attempt was going to be made to convict him (Dreiser). 3. Then she came to New York where she remained two years (Dreiser). Depending on the degree of connection and the relation they bear to the antecedent attributive clauses can be subdivided into limiting (restrictive) and descriptive (non-restrictive).
Limiting attributive clauses limit and define more clearly the antecedent. They can’t be removed without destroying the meaning of the antecedent. A limiting attributive clause is not separated by a comma from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Such clauses are introduced by the connectives that, who, which, whose, where, when or asydentically: 1. She had no idea where she was going (Murdoch). 2. There were times when I wanted to stop the car and tell him toget out (Maltz). 3. The things her father said seemed meaningless and neutral (Lawrence).
In a complex sentence with a limiting attributive clause the connective (the relative pronoun) may be omitted. Such clauses are called contact clauses. In such cases the two parts of the sentence are more closely joined together than when the relative pronouns are used. There is never a pause before limiting contact clauses, the intonation of the whole complex also shows unity and is different from that of two independent sentences: 1. She seemed to play the things he liked best … (Galsworthy). 2. Is there anything I can do for you? 3. The man I am writing about is not famous (Maugham). Generally we have contact clauses when the connective (relative pronoun) could be the object of its clause.
Descriptive attributive clauses give some additional information about the antecedent. They may be omitted without affecting the precise understanding of the sentence as a whole. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive clause is loose, attributive descriptive clauses are often separated by a comma. They are introduced by the connectives who, which, where, when, that. They can’t be joined asydentically: 1. All things shone softly in the sun, which was wonderfully warm. 2. Emily, who thought she knew him well, was alarmed (Galsworthy). 3. He reached up and pulled a red rose from a cluster, which blocked the window (Galsworthy). 4. Miss Naylor, who had gone into the house, came back (Galsworthy).
A subdivision of descriptive clauses is continuative clauses whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. A continuative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which is rendered in Ukrainian by the pronoun “що”. Continuative clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma: 1. He visited his parents who lived in a village, on Fridays, which was very convenient, as he was not busy on this day. 2. His daughter, a student of a theatrical school, made a great impression on everybody who dealt with her, whichwas pleasant for him and made him feel happy. 3. Mr. Brown got in touch with the company very quickly, which was very important for him, since he wanted to sign an agreement on cooperation and to go on a business trip to London. Descriptive clauses are generally placed immediately after the antecedent while continuative clauses may stand at some distance.
III. Practical task
Task I. Point out the coordinate clauses and comment on the way they are joined.
1. It was high summer, and the hay harvest was almost over. 2. All the rooms were brightly lighted, but there seemed to be complete silence in the house. 3. One small group was playing cards, another sat around the table and drank, or, tiring of that, adjourned to a large room to dance to music of the victrola or player piano. 4. His eyes were blood-shot and heavy, his face a deadly white, and his body bent as if with age. 5. He only smiled, however, and there was comfort in his hearty rejoinder, for there seemed to be a whole sensible world behind it. 6. You’ll either sail this boat correctly or you’ll never go out with me again. 7. Time passed, and she came to no conclusion, nor did any opportunities come her way for making a closer study of Mischa. 8. She often enjoyed Annette’s company, yet the child made her nervous. 9. She ran through another set of rooms, breathless, her feet scarcely touching the surface of the soft carpets; then a final doorway suddenly and unexpectedly let her out into the street. 10. It was early afternoon, but very dark outside, and the lamps had already turned on.
Task II. Define the types of subordinate clauses (subject, object and predicative clauses). Translate them into Ukrainian.
1. Miss Casement stopped what she was doing and stared at Rainsborough. 2. What you saw tonight was an ending. 3. About what was to come she reflected not at all. 4. The trouble with you, Martin, is that you are always looking for a master. 5. Suddenly realizing what had happened, she sprang to her feet. 6. “It looks as if spring will never come”, she remarked. 7. I want you to sit here beside me and listen to what I have to say. 8. Who and what he was, Martin never learned. 9. That I am hungry and you are aware of it are only ordinary phenomena, and there’s no disgrace.
Task III. Define the type of attributive clauses.
1. “Everybody who makes the kind of blunder I did should apologize,” he remarked with a pronounced nodding of his head. 2. Rachel had become aware of the fact that she was talking loudly. 3. He took after his blond father, who had been a painter. Rosa took after her dark-haired mother, who had been a Fabian. 4. What we are interested in, as author and reader, is the fact that publishing in England is now an integral part of big business. 5. The invalid whose strength was now sufficiently restored, threw off his coat, and rushed towards the sea, with the intention of plunging in, and dragging the drowning man ashore. 6. He was suddenly reminded of the crumpled money he had snatched from the table and burned in the sink. 7. Georgie, who is now twenty-six, had been an undergraduate at Cambridge, where she had taken a degree in economics. 8. He would speak for hours about them to Harry Esmond; and, indeed, he could have chosen few subjects more likely to interest the unhappy young man, whose heart was now as always devoted to these ladies; and who was thankful to all who loved them, or praised them, or wished them well. 9. I hardly know why I came to the conclusion that you don’t consider it an altogether fortunate attachment.
