Metaphor is a stylistic device based on interaction between the logical & contextual meanings of the word which is based on likeness between objects & implies analogy & comparison between them. The basis of metaphor is the mental process of comparison, but, unlike in simile, in metaphor the ground of comparison is never stated openly. Metaphors can be embodied in all the basic parts of speech—nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The stylistic functions of the metaphor: 1) by evoking images & suggesting analogies it makes the author's thought more concrete definite & clear.2) it reveals the author's emotional attitude towards the described. Varieties of metaphors: 1) personification - a special kind of metaphor in which abstract ideas or inanimate objects r identified with person. 2) animalification - a special kind of M. in which abstract ideas or inanimate objects are identified with the beasts. Metaphors may be classified according to a number of principles. 1. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee metaphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Dead metaphors are fixed in dictionaries. They often sound banal and hackneyed, like cliches: to prick up one's ears; the apple of one's eye; to burn with desire. Original metaphors are not registered in dictionaries. They are created in speech by speakers' imagination. They sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable: Some books are t o be tasted, others swallowe d, and some few to be chewed and digested 2. According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are classified into nominational, cognitive and imaginative (or figurative). Nominational metaphors do not render any stylistic information. They are intended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world: the foot of the hill. When an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object, cognitive metaphor is formed: One more day has died. The most expressive kind of metaphor is imaginative metaphor: Time was bleeding away. If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass. 3. Metaphors may be also classified according to their structure (or according to complexity of image created). There are such metaphors as simple (or elementary) and prolonged (or sustained). A simple metaphor consists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion: The leaves were falling sorrowfully. A sustained metaphor appears in cases when a word which has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also realize their metaphoric meanings: Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. Its natural sphere of usage is poetry and elevated prose.
Epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning of an attributive (or adverbial) word or phrase used to characterize an object so as to give an individual perception and evaluation of some features or properties. It differs from the logical attribute which is purely objective.
Compositionally epithets may be divided into several groups:
1) Sample or word -epithets (adjectives, nouns or participles): He looked at them in animal panic. 2) Compound epithets (compound adjectives): Apple-faced woman; 3) ' Two-step epithets (supplied with intensifiers): a marvellously radiant smile 4) Phrase epithets (hyphenated epithets): I-am-not-that-kind-of girl look. 5) Reversed epithets — composed two nouns linked by an of -phrase: the devil of a sea
Taking into consideration their semantic properties, linguists suggest different classifications of epithets, According to I.R.Galperin, epithets may be divided into 2 groups: 1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: dark forest 2) unassociated with the noun, epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and which strikes the reader by its novelty. voiceless sands. Kukharenko classification includes: 1) fixed epithets. Merry X-mas, a valiant youth. 2) figurative epithets are formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes. smiling sun, sleepless pillow.
Antonomasia is a stylistic device in which the proper name of a person, who is famous for some of his features, is put for a person having the same feature. It is based on interaction between logical and nominal meaning of a word. Antonomasia is brief and picturesque. Several types of antonomasia are distinguished by scholars: 1) a proper noun is used for a common noun. It describes a person’s features and qualities through those commonly associated with the name of some historical figure or some mythological, religious, literary character. Its stylistic function is to give concrete expression to abstract things. - Her husband is an Othello. - Some modern Samsons were walking by. 2) a common noun is used instead of a proper noun. Often they are used to create a humorous effect - Miss Dirty Fringe, - Mr. Know-All, - Mr. Fix-it, - Mr. Facing-both-ways (вашим и нашим). They are usually spelled with hyphens between their components to stress their close syntactical and semantic relations. 3) 'speaking names' — names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. In the 18-19 centuries it was customary to provide literary characters with speaking names. Their stylistic function is to characterize a person through his name: Mr. Scrooge, Oliver Twist, Becky Sharp. They are more frequently used in Russian literature and seldom in English. Irony is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realisation of two meanings: the literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning; used in ridicule, contempt, or humour. Emphasis is placed on the opposition between the dictionary and the intended meaning of a statement: one thing is said and the opposite is implied. Nice weather isn't it. (On a rainy day) Intonation plays an important role in expressing irony. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning, but only positive concepts may be used in it (as above: great, nice). Her distaste is impeccable.
