after their last (first, second) year at college (the university) - (, ) ();
according to smth. (their map, my watch, their orders or instructions, her words, etc.) - () - ( , , () , ..);
smooth hair (forehead, surface, board, paper, skin, road, sea) - (, , , , , );
to break into flower - , ; to be in leaf (in flower) - ( );
with one's eyes on smb. or smth. (with one's hair flung back) - -. -. ( ); to show smb. the way - -. ; to break in (into a conversation) - , ;
to hurt or pain smb. - ( -.);
My leg is hurting me (hurts). - .
to take smb. in from head to heel - -. ;
to get smth. ready - -.; there's no room for - ...; one at a time - .
Exercise 4, p. 258
1. After their last year (together) at the university they made up their minds to go to work in the North. 2. According to his words he is not to blame. 3. The pebbles on the beach were smooth and shiny. 4. The smooth sea looked empty and hostile. 5. We drove down the smooth gravel drive and out of the white gates. 6. The woman stood leaning against the wall with her eyes on him. 7. He stood stock-still ( , ) with his eyes on the painting. 8. Thank you for showing us the way. 9. I wish you wouldn't break into our conversation/break in. 10. Sorry for breaking into your conversation/for breaking in. 11. The back hurt/pained me so I couldn't sleep. 12. She walked on without complaining though her foot hurt/pained her terribly. 13. She took him in from head to heel. 14. It will take me half an hour to get everything ready. 1 5. Have a rest while I get the spare room ready. 16. The trees will soon be in leaf. 17. What can be more delightful to the eye than a cherry tree ready to break into flower? 18.1 did not go with them as there was no room in the car.
Exercise 5, p. 259
1. After their first year together at (the) university they became great friends. 2. According to the directions/instructions we must get the camp ready for the tourists' arrival by the first of June. 3. According to my watch it's high time to put the children to bed. 4. Our trip went (off) smoothly /without a hitch. 5. The road was smooth and we quickly got to the station. 6. The boy was standing with his eyes on the car. If only he were/was taken for a ride (in it)! 7. She looked very pretty/She looked lovely with her hair flung back. 8. I'm afraid we are going in the wrong direction, let's ask somebody to show us the way to the shop. 9. Excuse me for breaking in, but I've got to talk to you right now. Yesterday evening/Last night I had such a toothache /my tooth pained/hurt me so much
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that I couldn't go to sleep. 11. "Where does it hurt?" asked the doctor. 12. The landlady took them in from head to heel and only after that invited them into the house. 13. I 'll get everything ready in five minutes! 14. The hedge was breaking into flower filling the air with a sweetish smell. 15. The slender aspens/asps are in flower. They bloom/They stay in flower until they are in leaf. 16. There's no room for another armchair in the room. It's too crowded (with furniture) as it is. 17. The teacher asked the children to speak one at a time because when all of them spoke together it was difficult to understand what they wanted.
Exercise 8, p. 260
(-. ) - to make (some place); - to have a bent for; - to pluck a flower; - to talk through one's hat; - against the sky; - the shoes were split; - with the hair flung back; - to put up one's hand in a salute;
- to stay the night;
- without shyness;
- to take up the catechism;
- an old orchard of apple-trees;
- a spare room;
- to stand by itself;
- a sandy bottom;
- to overhang the water;
, - dewy eyes.
Exercise 9, p. 260
1. Frank Ashurst and his friend Robert Garton were travelling on foot. 2. Giving the knee a rest and talking of the universe. 3. Like some wild prehistorical animal. 4. Garton's dark curly 1 hick hair which looked as though its depths had never been louched by a comb. 5. Robert was talking nonsense. 6. And Ashurst who saw beauty without giving a thought to (speculat- ing how) it could benefit him/how he could benefit/profit from it... 7. His head was bare/He wasn't wearing a hat, so how could he take off what wasn't there? 8. Garton went on asking questions. 9- The girl's aunt's neck was also long and graceful and mobile and probably reminded one vaguely of a snake. 10. He felt unreasonably happy.
Exercise 2, p. 261
1. , . 2. ? - . , . 3- , , . , . 4. . 5. . 6. , . 7. . 8. : . 9. / ? 10. . 11. . 12. /, ( ). 13. . 14. , . 15. / , . 16. . . 17. . - , . 18. , / - . 19- , , , , .
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1. : . 2. , . 3. (fussed over) . 4. , - , . 5. , - - . 6. . 7. , : . 8. . 9. / ? 10. , , . 11. , . 12. . , - , . 13. . 14. . 15. , . 16. , / (spare and holds himself well). 17. - : , . 18. , . 19. , , ? 20. , . 21. , .
22. , , . 23. (peeped) .
Exercise 3, . 262
. 1. I'm afraid I've completely lost track of him. 2. She stumbled along the steep track that led up the hill. 3. The man was sure he had covered up his tracks. 4. The mystery bored him and he could not keep track of the plot. 5. The hounds were on the track of the fox. 6.1 know I've followed the wrong track. 7. The quaint ancient castle was outlined against the dark sky. 8. The student was asked to outline the historical event. 9- In her letters she had outlined her life/had told me about her life in outline. 10. The sea is rough today. 11. His rough manner frightened the children 12. Should the weather be rough, do not think of riding. 13. What he told me opened my eyes to the true state of affairs. 14.1 hope we see eye to eye/I hope I see eye to eye with you in this matter. 15.1 never set eyes on her before. (Very informal-. I never clapped eyes on her.) 17. His words opened my eyes to their plans. 18. You should keep an eye on the children when they are playing. 19. He has an eye for a pretty girl. 20. A half-indignant mutter arose about him but he just closed his eyes to it.
. 1. Television is one of contemporary world's wonders. 2. It's no wonder/No wonder/Small wonder that your words sent her temper up. 3.1 wonder at her saying that. 4.1 wonder what she told you./What did she tell you I wonder? 5. Melody wondered if she would ever find the courage to dare to confide in Sarah. 6. This is a lame argument, it does not prove anything. 7. How would you put this in French? 8. The outbreak () of dysentery was put down to bad drinking-water. 9. I'll put in a word for you, I promise. 10. His modesty is all put on. 11. He was very much put out by the loss of the document.
23. Let's put off our hiking tour until the weather is better.
23. Don't be shy of ringing me up any time. I'll be in the whole day. 14. She stretched out/held out her fragile hand to her cousin and touched his wife softly with the other. 15. He stretched himself out on the settee and watched the canary hop about in its cage. 16. Hurst parish stretches over miles of sandy lowland and sandstone hill. 17. The meeting was held in the hospital dining-room. 18. He had been careful to hold back what he knew about the subject. 19. She did not know whether or not to hold out her hand.
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Exercise 4, p. 263
A. 1. I clean forgot about the time/the passage of time./ I completely forgot that there was such a thing as time./The fact that the time was passing and sooner or later this would end had slipped my mind. It was wonderful. 2. He was very careful not to leave any signs/marks that could let people know where he had been or what he had done. 3- You are thinking in a way that's likely to lead to an incorrect result./ You are after the wrong person/You are barking up the wrong tree/You are suspecting the wrong person/You've chosen a wrong way. 4. It was that, that eventually made our friend guess/understand what had happened. 5. I hope you don't expect me to follow all the details? 6. The dim white contour of her summer dress was all that I could see. 7.1 begin to see - not what you would like me to see - the shape of a face and a form - but the shape of a mind./ I begin to see - not what you would like me to see - not the way he/she looks but the way his/her mind works. 8. He was prepared to accept the bad things in life as well as the good ones./He realized that it wouldn't be all plain sailing and was prepared to face the problems as they came./He realized that there might be problems and difficulties and was prepared to face them. 9. Mrs. Steptoe believes in treating poor relations unkindly/ looking down her nose on poor relations and being unpleasant to them. 10. Hance was an old man with a brusque/impolite tongue and compassionate eyes. 11. She shook hands very firmly looking me straight in the face. 12. Do you mind looking through/glancing at these accounts? 13. Well, I don't suppose there's hope of making you understand the realities of life/there's no hope of making you give up your illusions and see life as it really is. 14. He pictured the image of the girl to himself/He saw the girl in his mind's eye. 15. She has no opinions of her own: she sees everything just like her mother. 16. She gave/told me the main points of the article but I read it myself. 17. He spoke briefly about the events of those stirring days. 18. I can never get over the marvels of modern science. 19. The Christmas tree, of what they had never seen the likes, filled them with admiration and amazement/awe. 20. Finch considered whether he should embrace the boy - give him a hug and a kiss. 21. It's very surprising/I'm very surprised/It's a miracle you got here at all. 22. The X-ray treatment has remarkably improved his condition.
. 1. A lean old gentleman rose from his chair and hobbled forward to meet me/and walked forward in such a way that it was evident that one of his legs or feet was injured, stiff or malformed. 2. He tried to prevent me from what I intended to do by making empty promises. 3. This will make me spend a lot of money. 4. I can't stand this noise any longer. 1 am going to try and put an end to it. 5. Don't try to assume that air of injured dignity: I can see through you pretence/ Don't try to pretend that your dignity is injured: I know that you are play-acting. 6. He tried not to think about/to forget the incident. 7. I think in those days we sometimes hesitated/didn't dare to show our emotions. 8. I thought if we had spent one evening together perhaps he would dare to ask me of his own accord another time. 9. He is capable of speaking 24 hours running/in a row/non-stop/without stopping. 10. A wet railway line/Wet rails and ties ran into the desolate distance. 11. We didn't know what the future held in store for us/We hadn't the least notion/the faintest idea what would happen to us in the future. 12. A girl in a cotton dress and straw hat ran up to him her hands held out. 13. You have the air of one who can dictate the terms/who has all the trumps (and will have everything their own way). 14. She can stand her ground with anyone and she isn't one to be trifled with. 15. Can I suggest an alternative solution that's likely to work/an alternative sensible solution? 16. I'd like to be able to behave in this town in a way that shows that I have no cause to be ashamed of myself and that I expect respect.
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Exercise 5, p- 264
shy - timid
1. A bold man by nature, he was shy as a boy in the presence of women. 2. "The soup is beastly!" old Osborn roared, in answer to a timid look of inquiry from his daughter.
shy - self-conscious
1. She was obviously wearing her best clothes and had the self-conscious wooden smile on her face. 2. The girl looked at the man with a shy smile.
rude - rough
1. Though rough in manner and speech the old soldier was at heart kind and considerate. 2. Squire Western was rude to the servants and the women of his household.
rough - coarse
1. The surface of the stone is rough. It needs polishing. 2. The fire gleamed on the coarse white tablecloth.
Exercise 6, p. 264
A. 1. Our train is on track five, let's hurry up/let's walk faster. 2. Sinking into the deep snow the hound was follow- ing a hare's tracks. 3. He is not the kind of man/person (He is not one/He is not a man/person) to follow the beaten track. 4.1 have lost track of his reasoning and couldn't understand what he was talking about. 5. Beyond the railway/railroad (US) tracks there was a field which stretched to the (very) horizon. 6. Here's the outline of my report. Will you look it through? 7. Unfortunately I don't have this article with me now but if you wish I can outline it to you/tell you what it's about in outline. 8. The road was rough from the tracks of countless wheels. 9. The man was wearing (a short overcoat) made of coarse cloth/fabric/a short coarse overcoat and no hat. 10. The woman's hands were rough from washing clothes and dishes/from laundering and washing up. 11.1 don't advise you to write a rough copy of the paper: you won't have the time to rewrite it (you won't have the time to write a fair copy then). 12. I'm afraid that Father and I don't see eye to eye on this point. 13. There's something wrong with her, keep an eye on her. 14. He ran his eyes over/through the list and saw his name on it. 15. He is a clever artist with an eye for colour. 16. The doll was so pretty that the little girl couldn't take her eyes off it. 17. I've come here with an eye to /with a view to getting to the bottom of this affair/to clearing up this matter. 18. She couldn't thread the needle because the eye was too small. 19. The boy caught the teacher's eye and stopped talking. 20. No wonder/Small wonder/It is no wonder (that) it's so cold: the window is open. 21.1 wonder why the doctor has given up/dropped medical practice. 22. It's a wonder to me how one can be so tactless.
B. 1. Why are you lame in the right foot? - I've slipped and fallen. 2. Tim noticed that the girl was walking with a slight limp. 3. She made up some lame story to excuse her being late/her late arrival (some lame excuse for being late). 4. The old man shifted the hard straw-filled/straw-stuffed pillow and drew/pulled/ stretched the blanket over himself. 5. Have you got a pen? I'm afraid I'll forget your address if I don't put it down /write it down/take it down/make a note of it. 6. I've got everything ready. Put aside your work and let's have supper/dinner. 7. It's time to put the winter clothes away or they will/may/might be eaten by moths/or moths may get to them. 8. I put all his failures to a lack of confidence. 9- I know him well enough and I'm sure that he'll cope with this work/job. One should put in a word for him or it may be given to someone else, and he is very interested in it. 10. We can't accept this offer without thinking everything over properly. Let's put off the decision till tomorrow. 11. The fact that the paragraph was put on the first page shows (testifies to) the importance of this event. 12. Why do you want to put up at a hotel? Stay with us as long as you wish, we've got a lot of room. 13. "I don't want to put up with you laziness," the father said. "You must do this work today." 14. She struck me as a clever but very shy girl.
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24. "Here's you room. If you need something don't be shy of calling me /don't nesitate to call me," the hostess said.
25. The girl got very shy when I addressed her. 17. These woollen socks have shrunk a lot, can they be stretched somehow? 18. Anne stretched a clothes-line between two trees and began to hang the underwear on it. 19. Finley spread his coat over/on the wet grass and stretched himself (out) on it. 20. I don't know why they have to hold a trial here, at my place," said Mr. White. 21. Do you think this bag will hold the apples? 22. He held his breath and pricked his ears. 23. This warm spell is temporary. This kind of weather won't hold long. 24. At that moment the boy lost hold of the rope and fell to the ground/plopped down.
Exercise 7, p. 266
- to leave tracks; - to cover up one's tracks; - the beaten track; - to be outlined against; - rough hair; - a rough copy; - to keep an eye on; -. ... - to open one's eyes to; - to make eyes (at smb.); -. - to turn a blind eye to smth.; to close one's eyes to smth.;
- - to have an eye for smth.; - with an eye to;
() - to be lame of/in the right (left) foot/leg;
- a lame excuse;
- to put smth. out of one's mind;
- to put smb. to expense;
... - to put up with;
- a shy smile;
- to stretch one's legs;
- at a stretch;
- to stretch out one's hand/to hold out one's hand;
-. - to hold smth. back; to keep smth/ back; - to catch (take, get, seize, grip, lay) hold of.
Exercise 12, p. 267
1. My sister was very ill and I had to sit up all night with her. 2. This little stream never dries up. 3. You have worked very well so far; keep it up. 4. You have got the story all mixed up. 5. The home was burned down before the fire brigade came. 6. The sleeves of my dress are too short. I must ask the tailor to let them down an inch. 7. We can't buy that car just yet, but we are saving up. 8. After dinner I'll wash up. 9. Sit down, there is plenty of room for everyone. 10. Your coat collar is up at the back, shall I turn it down? 11. Don't stand under a high tree during a thunderstorm. 12. I can't use my office now, it is under repair. 13-1 did this under orders. 14. Under the circumstances I will not give you any extra work. 15. He is under age and cannot be allowed to be independent.
Exercise 13, p. 267
1. At five o'clock I was already up and without wasting time set to work/started working. 2. Hang up your overcoat here, I'll show you the way to your room. 3- I've picked up a handkerchief. Is it yours? 4. Her parents died when she was still a little girl and she has been brought up by an aunt. 5. The boy turned the box upside down, and the toys scattered/slipped all over the floor. 6.1 was up all night, and now I'm dropping with fatigue. 7. Let's go up this hill, it (its top) gives/offers a very lovely view of the river. 8. Yesterday Mother fell down the stairs and hurt/injured her foot/leg. I'm very worried about her./I worry about her very much. 9. I 'm feeling off colour/under the weather/unwell, I 'd better go and lie down. 10.1 don't like looking down from a big height, I feel dizzy. 11. You had better put down my address in a notebook, you may lose this sheet/slip of paper. 12. A large part of the city was flooded/was covered with water/was under water. 13. A boy of about five was sitting at a desk alone. 14. A lot of writers publish their works under assumed names. 15. The students were conducting/carrying out/making an experiment under the guidance of a professor.
CONVERSATION AND DISCUSSION
MAN AND NATURE
TOPICAL VOCABULARY
Natural resources and attractions. - :
minerals - ; ;
(fresh) water supplies (reservoirs) - ()
;
reservoir ['rezavwa: ] - ;
flood - 1) ; ; ; 2) ;
rainfall - ;
vegetation - ;
greenery - ; ; ;
woodland - , ;
woodlands - ;
forestry - , ;
wildlife - ;
animal kingdom - ;
animal population - ;
flora and fauna [fo: ] - ;
arable land (soil) (also ploughland) - ;
cultivated land - ;
open land - ; ;
"green" belts ( );
recreation areas - ;
coastal areas - ; country (national) parks - ; clear landscapes - ; public open spaces - .
Environment and man. - :
to link man to nature - ;
to adapt to environment - () ;
to be preoccupied with economic growth - ;
unrestricted industrialization - ;
the sprawl of large built-up areas - ;
to upset the biological balance - ;
to abuse nature - , ;
to disfigure (litter) the landscape - () ;
ecology - ; ecosystem - ;
to be environment-conscious - ;
to be environment-educated - .
Environmental destruction and pollution. - :
land pollution - ; derelict land - ; industrial waste - ; the by-products of massive industrialization - , , -;1;
to dump waste (products) on land - /- / ;
extensive use of agrochemicals - /;
the denudation of soil - / ; the toxic fall-outs of materials - ; water pollution - ; a dropping water level - ; to face the fresh water supply problem - ;
depletion of water resources - / ;
the disruption of water cycle - ;
marine pollution - ; oil spillage - ;
air (atmospheric) pollution - ();
the air pollution index - ; to produce foul air - ; to exhaust toxic gases (fuel) - (-oe );
combustion of fuel - ; concentrations of smoke in the air - ;
dust content in the air - ; ; radiation - ;
high (low) radioactivity - () ;
to store (disperse) radioactive waste - () ;
noise offenders (pollutants) - , ; ;
merciless killing of animals - ;
destruction of animals habitats - .
Nature conservation and environment protection. - :
a global imperative for environment - ;
global environmental security - ;
to preserve ecosystems - ; to create disaster-prevention programs - / ;
to harmonize industry and community - ;
plants and people - ; conservation movement - ; to preserve woodlands - ; to protect and reproduce animal (fish, bird) reserves - (, );
to fight pollution - ;
to install antipollution equipment - ;
to minimize noise disturbance - ;
to reduce pollution - ;
to dispose of garbage (litter, waste) - (, ).
MORPHOLOGY
Exercise 1, p. 362
1. Normally no article is used with names of people as they point out individuals, so the proper nouns Peter (first name), Carl (middle name) and Faberge (surname) are used without articles.
2 and 7. These are cases of a metonymic transfer. In these sentences the names of the famous jeweller (Faberge) and painters (Levitan and Aivazovsky) are used to denote their works and thus become common countable nouns. As such they must be used with articles. The indefinite classifying article is used, because the works of art in both sentences are mentioned for the first time.
3. No article is used if the name of a person is modified by the descriptive attribute little. The same rule applies to big, dear, poor, lucky, old, young, honest, pretty and some others because they form a part of the name they precede.
4.Big Ben and the Tower are proper names denoting buildings. The use of articles with names of important buildings varies from name to name and largely depends on tradition. Most of them take no article but there are quite a few exceptions which should be memorized.
5.Here tower is a common noun used in a set phrase with the classifying indefinite article.
In the first clause of this compound sentence " the city " is a common noun. It is used with the definite article in its specifying function because it is clear from the context that the city in question is London. In the second clause of the sentence uthe City " is a proper name. The use of the definite article here is based on tradition.
6.10, 15, 16. These are clear cases of a metonymic transfer. Names of companies usually take no article but here Sony, Panasonic, Ford, Adidas, Nike and Chanel denote not the manufacturing companies but items produced by them. As such they are countable and can take articles including the classifying indefinite article as in these sentences.
7.There is a legend that the popular nickname for Academy Awards which were first conferred by the US-based Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1929 for excellence in acting, directing, writing screenplays and other aspects of film production stuck to the gilted statuette in the following way. One of the Academy's employees, a Margaret Merrick looked at one of the first statuettes and said, "Why he looks just like my uncle Oscar!" Thus as a result of a metonymic transfer the Academy Awards came to be known as Oscars. This is a common count noun which takes articles and has a regular plural.
11. Henry Ford is a personal name. Generally such names take no articles and this is just the case.
12 and 13. These are clear cases of a metonymic transfer. Names of persons become countable common nouns indicating typical features associated with those names. In sentence 12 the indefinite article is used because the speaker evidently does not think the boy or young man in question unique. In sentence 13 the definite article is used because everybody seems to believe the singer a unique phenomenon.
14. This is another case of a metonymic transfer. The characteristic qualities of the proverbial Jack-of-call-trades are meant, so the name becomes a count noun.
17.The definite article is used with the surname in the plural to indicate the whole family.
18.If a name is preceded by Mr., Mrs. or Miss, the use of the indefinite article implies that the speaker doesn't know this person.
19- See 17 for the Benois. The indefinite article is used before the Benois to indicate that one of a family is meant.
20.The definite article is used with the name of a person modified by descriptive attributes as the limitation is clear from the context.
21.In the second sentence the name is just that - a personal name indicating the bearer of the name, so no article is used. In the first sentence the characteristic qualities of the Cora in question are meant, and it becomes a countable common noun in the plural.
22.The name is modified by a descriptive attribute and is the center of communication, so the indefinite article is used.
Exercise 2, p.
1.Can I introduce Margaret Diamond?
2Can I introduce the Margaret Diamond I told you about last week?
3.There is a Margaret Diamond waiting for you in the office.
4.Well, mine is a Lincoln, not a Toyota.
5.The National Gallery bought a Constable at the auction.
6.Have you got a Collins that I could borrow?
7.- What a bright pullover! - Yes, it's a Benetton.
8.- Do you know who invented the Pullman?
9/The actor got a Nika for this film.
10/She was a good actress. She made a rather touching Natalia Petrovna in "A Month in the Country" by Turgenev.
11/This isn't the Paris I used to know.
12.There will always be an England for me!
13.The two Americas have different climatic zones.
14.The concert hall bought a new Petroff.
15.How strong the boy is! A true Hercules!
Exercise 3, p. 363
1. Could you lend me your Webster? - Will a Hornby do?/Will a Hornby suit you?
2. You are a real Lovelace! - And you are a Don Juan.
3. 1 know nothing about painting. I can't tell a Cezanne from a Picasso.
4. Is it Lillian? How changed she is! It is surely not the Lillian I knew when she was a little girl.
5. Can I book a ticket to Birmingham?/Can I pay for a call to Birmingham? - Yes, but we've got two Birminghams in the computer. Do you need the Birmingham which is in the USA or the Birmingham in England? - The Birmingham which is in England.
6.1 bought a new TV set yesterday. - Is it a Sony? - No, it's a Philips.
7.
We have received a fax from a Romanov.
8.With all those magic tricks of his your son may become another/a new David Copperfield.
9. see you've got a Honda, haven't you? - No, it's my wife's new car.
10.A new McDonalds is opening/opens in Moscow tomorrow.
11.Have you got a copy of America to read? Unfortunately not. But I've got Cosmopolitan.
13.1 would never have thought that the Morozovs had such a gorgeous library.
14.To my delight I saw a Dahl in the bookshop and bought it.
15.Stop behaving like that. You are not a Scarlett and I'm not a Rhett.
16.Why, you are a real James Bond.
17.The police say you keep a Kalashnikov in your house.
18.The girl wants Father Frost to bring her a Barbie for the New Year.
19.Lord Sandwich invented the sandwich.
20.I'll have a Martini. - And I'd like a soda, please.
21.The scared/frightened Marina answered the phone call.
22.Now we have a complete "Britannica" and we are very glad about it.
23.Is Nurse at home? - She is out doing the shopping./She has gone to the shops/gone shopping.
24What a lovely shop! - Yes it's a Valentino.
Exercise 4, p. 364
1. , .
to sleep is an active non-perfect simple infinitive. It performs the function of the subject.
2. , .
to look is an active non-perfect simple infinitive. It performs the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose.
3. , , , .
to run is an active non-perfect simple infinitive. It is part of a compound verbal phasal predicate. To be is also an active non- perfect simple infinitive. It is an adverbial modifier of consequence.
4. - , . , . - , , , . , .
to listen and to take are active non-perfect simple infinitives. To have called is an active perfect infinitive. To listen is part of an adverbial modifier of purpose. To take and to have called are parts of objects.
5. , , .
to throw around is an active non-perfect infinitive; it performs the function of an attribute.
6. , .
to exclude is an active non-perfect simple infinitive, which serves as an adverbial modifier of purpose. To do is also an active non-perfect simple infinitive. It performs the function of an object.
7. , , .
to defend and to take up are both active non-perfect simple infinitives. To defend is part of a compound verbal modal predicate and to take up is an object.
8. : .
to hide is an active non-perfect simple infinitive which serves as an object.
9- .
to fish and to dry are active non-perfect simple infinitives serving as attributes.
10. , .
to speak is an active non-perfect simple infinitive which serves as part of an adverbial modifier of purpose.
11. , .
smile is an active non-perfect simple infinitive serving as an object. It is bare because though most of the verbs that take two objects the first of which is a noun or a pronoun and the second is an infinitive take an infinitive with the particle to, some are used with bare infinitives, namely to make, to let, to have and the verbs of sense perception.
12. , .
to see and leave are active non-perfect simple infinitives, tosee is an object; leave is part of a complex object/an objective with an infinitive construction. It is bare because after the verbs of sense perception such as to see complex objects contain bare infinitives.
13. , ?
to do is an active non-perfect simple infinitive. In this sentence it serves as an attribute.
14. - .
to listen is an active non-perfect simple infinitive which performs the function of the subject.
15. , .
to watch is an active non-perfect simple infinitive which serves as an adverbial modifier of purpose.
16. , .
to cool down is an active non-perfect simple infinitive which serves as an adverbial modifier of purpose.
17. - ? , , , .
Say and stop are active non-perfect simple infinitives. They are bare because the modal verb need takes a bare infinitive. Both are parts of compound verbal modal predicates. To cause and to put are active non-perfect simple infinitives. To cause is part of an adverbial modifier of purpose, and to put is part of a parenthesis.
18. , .
to win is an active non-perfect simple infinitive which serves as an adverbial modifier of purpose.
19- . to work at is an active non-perfect simple infinitive. It performs the function of an object.
20. .
to accept is an active non-perfect simple infinitive serving as the subject.
21. /.
to deal with is an active non-perfect simple infinitive serving as an object.
22. .
to consider is an active non-perfect simple infinitive serving as an attribute.
23- , .
to die is an active non-perfect simple infinitive serving as part of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.
Exercise 5, p. 365
1. Father is willing to let us be independent.
2. David is known to have taken part in the campaign.
3. 3.1 won't have you say it behind my back.
4. Ever since Simon came here he has been made to look like a fool.
5. Why not buy something new and smashing?
6. Mother made everybody do some work about the house.
7. She is always seen to walk with her grandchildren.
8. We suppose her to be in her late fifties.
9. I've never seen anyone enjoy food so much.
10.I would sooner let myself be cut in a thousand pieces than betray my friends.
11.The team was announced to have won the Cup.
12.Let's have a day off, shall we?
13.You'd better not say anything. I'd rather be left alone.
14.The Lovedays can't afford to buy this house.
15.1 was made to scrub the pans and pots.
16.Don't let's go home yet.
17.He is known to be an expert on ecology.
18.There is nothing to do but risk it.
19.We have to go now. We can't wait any more.
20.She felt her shoes pinch.
Exercise 6, p. 365
1. Tomorrow will be a very busy day. You've got several clients to receive and two meetings to attend.
2.I've got no time to relax at all. And there is still so much to do!
3.Janice is very hard/difficult to get in touch with. She seems to be talking on/over the phone/by phone all evening.
4.I'll have to consult my diary (Br. >?g.)/ca]endar (Am. Eng.), I may have phone calls to make.
5.To know oneself is to know one's merits and demerits/ one's virtues and faults/shortcomings/drawbacks/one's good and bad qualities.
6.Books made me revise my world outlook/made me look at the world with new eyes.
7.The secret is to know how to use different colours (so as/in order) to produce/have the best possible effect.
8.We advise you not to waste a single day (so as/in order) to achieve the best possible results.
9..This paste is potent enough to remove all kinds (different/various kinds) of stains.
10.To exclude/To rule out any possibility of (making) a mistake/an error it is necessary to carry out a thorough investigation/to investigate the matter thoroughly.
11Need I say anything else/say more? - No, you'd better keep silent (you had better stop) so as not to cause more trouble/not to make things worse.
12Adrian took the opportunity to talk to his father.
13He was made to allow the children to go on/for a picnic/to let the children go on/for a picnic.
141He built a house for himself never to live in it.
15It's hard to trust him/He's hard to trust. He's the last man to turn to for help.
Exercise 7, p. 366
I.
Sentences 1, 2,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,16, 17, 18 are cases of a metonymic transfer.
1.The change of meaning from glass to a glass is quite considerable. Whereas glass is an uncountable noun of material meaning a transparent solid substance used for making windows bottles, etc. - , a glass is a container made of that material and used for drinking - , . It takes an article.
2.Whereas paper is an uncountable material meaning material in the form of thin sheets that is used for writing on, wrapping things etc. - , a paper is a sheet of paper with print or writing on it. It is countable and means either a newspaper or a document or a letter or a piece of paper with writing on it that one uses in one's work. As such it is countable and if it is singular it takes an article.
3.Wood is an uncountable noun of material which in its general sense takes no article. It is the material trees are made of - , . A wood is a small forest.
4.Iron is an uncountable material noun meaning a common hard metal used to make steel - . An iron is a device made of this metal and used for making clothes smooth - . It is countable and as such can take articles.
5.String is an uncountable material noun used in such word combinations as "a piece of string", "a ball of string" etc. It means a thin strong thread made of several threads twisted together used for tying things - , . A string is a piece of the above - , . In this sense it can be used with the indefinite article.
6.Coffee is an uncountable material noun and as such can't take the indefinite article. A coffee is a portion of the above, most probably a cup. In this sense the noun is countable, it can be used with the indefinite article.
7.Cloth is an uncountable material noun meaning material used for making things such as clothes - , . A cloth is a piece of cloth used for a particular purpose, e.g. a wet cloth, a clean cloth, a tablecloth, a dishcloth.
8.Rubber is a non-count material noun meaning an elastic substance used to make tyres, boots etc. - . A rubber {Br. Eng.) is the same as the American eraser - a small pieoe of rubber or other material used for rubbing off pencil marks from paper. It is countable, has a plural and can be used with the indefinite article.
9.A lamb is a countable common noun meaning a young sheep - . Lamb is the meat of the above. It is an uncountable material noun.
10.Language is an abstract uncountable noun meaning the use of written or spoken words - , , e.g. written language, colloquial language, informal language or the words and style used in poetry, writing or speech or the words used in a particular activity or job, e.g. literary language, foul language, everyday language, medical language, etc. A language is a system of communication by words which is used by the people of a particular countiy or area - .
11.Tin is an uncountable material noun meaning a soft silver-gray non-precious metal - . A tin is a small metal container often tin-plated in whish food or drink is sold or stored.
12.Study is an abstract noun meaning learning e.g. from books, especially if you do it at home by yourself - , , e.g. fond of study, give a lot of one's time to study etc. It can't take the indefinite article but is often used in plural. A study is either a piece of research, or a room used by smb. for reading, writing, etc.
13.Light is an uncountable material noun meaning the energy from the sun, a lamp etc. that makes things visible - . A light is either a particularly type of light or a source of light. It is a result of a metonymic transfer from light.
14.Air is an uncountable material noun. Air is the mixture of gases around the Earth that we breathe - . An air is an appearance, a manner e.g. an air of confidence. It is a common countable noun which has a plural and can take the indefinite article.
15.Duck - is the meat of a duck () - a very common water bird. Duck is an uncountable material noun and a duck is a class countable one. Duck is derived from a duck as a result of a metonymic transfer.
16.Gold is an uncountable material noun meaning a soft yellow precious metal - . A gold as a countable noun is a case of a metonymic transfer from gold. It can mean either the colour of gold and or a gold medal in which sense it is always countable and can take the indefinite article.
17.Play is an abstract uncountable noun meaning the things people do for amusement rather than work - . A play is a story written to be performed by actors - . As such is a countable noun which can be used in plural and take the indefinite article.
18. Thought is an abstract uncountable noun meaning an act or process of thinking or careful consideration - , , e.g. lost in thought. A thought is an abstract countable noun meaning an idea, an intention or an opinion formed by thinking -
II.
What terrible weather! What a terrible climate!
What (a) beautiful language! What a beautiful suitcase!
What elegant clothes! What an elegant dress!
What heavy rainfall! What a heavy shower!
What a healthy cow! What healthy cattle!
What awful rubbish! What an awful mess!
What clever people! What a clever person!
What a difficult job! What difficult work!
What fresh bread! What a fresh loaf, a delicious meal!
What delicious food!
What a horrible song! What horrible music!
What a tough steak! What tough beef!
| 1. | a lottery - | 8. a woman - | 21. a species - species |
| lotteries | women | 22. a carp - carp, | |
| 2. | a fisherman - | 9. advice | carps |
| fishermen | 10. a mouse - mice | 23. a tooth - teeth | |
| . | a fish - fish, | 11. petrol | 24. a cuckoo - |
| fishes | 12. a chef - chefs | cuckoos | |
| 4. | a series - series | 13. information | 25. a taxi - taxis |
| 5. | a Japanese - | 14. a foot - feet | 26. a menu - menus |
| the Japanese | 15. weather | 27. toast | |
| (the entire | 16. a tomato - | 28. a mongoose - | |
| nation), two, | tomatoes | mongooses | |
| three etc. | 17. a means - | 29. a disco - discos | |
| Japanese (people/ | means | 30. a Swiss - | |
| men/women) | 18. a photo - | the Swiss (the | |
| 6. | progress | photos | entire nation), |
| 7. | a person - | 19. a leaf - leaves | two Swiss (peo |
| people, persons | 20. an ox - oxen | ple/men/girls) |
| 1. a class-mate - | 6. a mother-in-law | 11. a boy-friend - |
| class-mates | - mothers-in- | boy-friends |
| 2. a forget-me- | law | 12. an office- |
| not - forget- | 7. a passer-by - | block - |
| me-nots | passers-by | office-blocks |
| 3. a man-of-war - | 8. a woman- | 13. a cupful - |
| men-of-war | driver - | cupfuls |
| 4. a man-servant | women- | 14. a court-martial |
| - men-servants | drivers | - courts- |
| 5. a merry-go- | 9. a grown-up - | martial |
| round - | grown-ups | 15. a school-inspec- |
| merry-go- | 10. a hanger-on - | tor - school- |
| rounds | hangers-on | inspectors |
Exercise 9, p. 367
Complete the table. Note that some of these words of foreign origin have regular plurals.
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| 1. cactus | cacti, cactuses | 14. stadium | stadiums, |
| 2. analysis | analyses | stadia | |
| 3. stimulus | stimuli | 15. museum | museums |
| 4. stratum | strata | 16. addendum | addenda, adden- |
| 5. datum | data | dums | |
| 6. curriculum | curricula, | 17. radius | radii |
| curriculums | 18. drama | dramas | |
| 7. basis | bases | 19. genius | geniuses |
| 8. fungus | fungi, | 20. appendix | 1. appendices; |
| funguses | 2. appendixes | ||
| 9. genus | genera | (see the differ | |
| 10. index | indices, | ence in meaning | |
| indexes | in a good dic | ||
| 11. crisis | crises | tionary) | |
| 12. criterion | criteria | 21. axis | axes |
| 13- memoran | memoranda, | 22. medium | media |
| dum | memorandums | 23. album | albums |
| 24. phenome | phenomena | ||
| non |
Exercise 10, p. 368
I, 2,4,8, 13, 15, 16, 18. All these uncountable abstract nouns are used without articles because in a general sense such nouns take no article. It is notworthy that all these nouns: information, advice, neivs, weather, money, work (in the meaning a job or an activity that one does, especially in order to earn money -) are never used with the indefinite article.
3. The definite article is used with the uncountable abstract noun information because the limitation is clear from the context out of which the sentence has been taken.
5. The definite article is used with the uncountable abstract noun advice because there is the limiting attribute I gave you.
6. One instance of giving or receiving advice is a piece of advice. One needs such a long construction because advice remains an invariable singular noun no matter how often you give of receive it.
7. For advice see 4 and 6. As for good name the word combination generally takes an article, mostly the indefinite one, as name is an abstract countable noun. Here, however, it is used with zero article, probably to echo good advice which cannot take the indefinite article.
10. The countable abstract noun weather never takes the indefinite article. When preceded by a descriptive attribute it takes no article at all.
II. The uncountable noun money is never used with the indefinite article.
12. The definite article is used with the uncountable abstract noun money because there is a limiting attribute.
14. The abstract uncountable noun weather is always used with the definite article if it is not preceded by a descriptive attribute.
17. When used in a general sense abstract uncountable nouns take no article and this is just the case.
Exercise 11, p. 368
1. Play and no work will make you lazy.
2. History repeats itself.
3. Grammar is taught deeply in this school.
4. My father has an old French grammar.
5. Nature should be protected against pollution.
7. He was a man who lived for pleasure.
8. He has a nature like his grandfather's.
9. It was a pleasure to talk to you.
10.Can you do me a favour?
11.Get down to business, all of you!
12.Charity begins at home.
13.You should study law at university.
14.Language is unique to humans.
15. To succeed in life you need a will.
16.In her youth she was a beauty.
17.We are looking for people with experience. 18.1 need a study where I can work quietly.
19- They are looking for work at the moment. 20. Speech is a manifestation of language.
Exercise 12, p. 369
1.What is news and how is it gathered?
2.What is the latest news? - It is very interesting.
3.There is a piece/bit of news I'd like to discuss.
4. Be careful! Such fatal news can kill the old man.
5. A reporter looks through the news he has managed to obtain/he has been able to get.
6. Bad news travels fast.
7. Most information comes from the press.
8. The spy brought important information.
9. Is the information accurate? Can it be trusted?
10."Mom, we've come to you for advice."
11.A good piece/bit of advice is what you need now.
12.Do you want advice? OK, I can give you a bit of it.
13. This is an invaluable piece/bit of advice! It comes from the heart.
14. People like to talk about the weather because it's a safe subject.
15. What is the weather like today? - The weather is cold. It looks like snow.
16.1 like to roam the forest in the weather favourable to the growth of mushrooms.
17.Work in a bank was difficult for him.
18. Is this interesting work? Do you like it?
19. He has got an extensive knowledge of physics.
20. The concert was a great success.
21. My students are making great progress in the foreign language.
22. There is money in the box. Take it. The money is yours.
23. He counted the money carefully and put it into his wallet.
24. Education is the best investment.
25. He has given his son a first-class education.
Exercise 13, p. 369
1. In both sentences particular sorts of cheese are mentioned, so the noun cheese has become a class countable one.
2. Material uncountable nouns used in a general sense (food in this case) take no article. The presence of a descriptive attribute good makes no difference.
3. Snack is a countable noun used as an attribute to foods which is also countable because it denotes different sorts of food. Popcorn is an uncountable noun of material. Since it is used in a general sense no article is used. A treat is a class noun used with the indefinite article in its classifying function.
4. Lunch is a class noun. As it is used with a descriptive attribute very fancy it takes the indefinite article in its classifying function. Meats is a countable plural noun here because it denotes different kinds of meat. A salad is also a class countable noun as it denotes a particular sort of salad. As such it is used with the indefinite article in its classifying function.
5. In the first sentence the material noun mine is used in its general sense, so it is uncountable, takes no article and is used with a singular verb. In the second sentence the noun wines denotes various sorts of wine so it is countable and plural.
6. A wine denotes a particular sort of wine, so it is countable and can take the indefinite article.
7. See 5, the second sentence.
8. See 5, the second sentence.
9-10. See 5. Vegetable (9) and fruit (10) are material nouns used as attributes.
11.A salad denotes a particular sort of salad, so it is countable. Fruit is an uncountable noun of material used as an attribute.
12. Two teas mean two cups of tea, and a coffee denotes j a cup of coffee. When one speaks of portions of tea, coffee, beer, salad, etc. these material nouns become class countable ones and can be used with numerals or with "a" meaning "one".
13- Chicken here is not a bird but its flesh which one eats as food, so it is an uncountable noun of material. Fruit is an uncountable material noun used attributively. Fruit here is a singular invariable noun. The same applies to toast which unlike fruit is always singular.
14. See 1.
15. Different sorts of soup are mentioned so the noun becomes a class countable one. A particular kind of broth is mentioned, so it is countable and can take the indefinite article. Teas mean different sorts of tea, so the noun has also become a class countable one.
Exercise 14, pp. 370-371
I.
A singular invariable noun.
If the word fruit is used in the botanical sense, that is the part of a plant, bush or tree which contains the seeds, it can be countable ().
The fruits of nature or of the earth are those plant or vegetable products that may be used for food. These are set expressions and the word fruit in them is countable.
In this sentence the noun fruit is singular and is used in its botanical sense (See 2). Most oftenyh/#has no plural but it doesn't mean that it can't be used with the indefinite article like advice or toast.
To bear fruit is a set phrase meaning to yield results. Although here the word fruit is used in its figurative sense and when used figuratively fruit is countable, originally to bear fruit must have had only a literal meaning and was used with reference to fruit trees and bushes, so fruit in this sentence is a singular noun.<
