An adverbial modifier may be expressed by different parts of speech (Fig. 135).
From the point of view of its structure the adverbial modifier may be simple, phrasal, complex, clausal (Fig. 136).
Fig. 136
Semantically adverbials denote place, time, manner, cause, purpose, result, condition, concession, attendant circumstances, comparison, degree, measure, exception, thus forming semantic classes, such as adverbials of place, time, etc. (Fig. 137).
The semantic class of an adverbial may be identified directly (absolutely) or indirectly (relatively) (Fig. 138). It is identified directly by lexical meaning of the word or phrase used as an adverbial. In other cases the semantic type is identified relatively, that is, only through the relationship of the adverbial to the modified part of the sentence, as is often the case with participles, infinitives, and some prepositional phrases.
Fig. 137
Fig. 138
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE
Independent elements of the sentence are not grammatically dependent on any particular part of the sentence, they refer to the sentence as a whole. Only occasionally they may refer to a separate part of the sentence. The independent element may consist of a word or a phrase. Its position is more free than that of any other parts of the sentence and accordingly it may occur in different positions in the sentence.
There are two groups of independent elements (Fig. 139).
Fig. 139
A direct address is the name of a person (or occasionally a non-person) to whom the rest of the sentence is addressed. It may be emotionally charged or neutral, but semantically it does not influence the sentence.
According to the meaning the parenthesis may beofseveral types(Fig. 140).
Fig. 140
As a rule a parenthesis refers to the sentence (or clause) as a whole. Sometimes, however, a parenthesis refers only to, a secondary part of the sentence.
As to its morphological nature, a parenthesis can be expressed in different ways (Fig. 141).
Fig. 141
COMPOSITE SENTENCE
The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines, i.e. it consists of two or more clauses. The composite sentence expresses a complicated act of thought, i.e. an act of mental activity which falls into two or more intellectual efforts closely combined with one another.
Composite sentences display two principal types of construction: hypotaxis (subordination) and parataxis (coordination) (Fig. 142).
Fig. 142
Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively (Fig. 143). Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank. Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon the other (or they are mutually dependent).
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Fig. 143
