7 Some years later mutant Neurospora was used that could not grow unless citrulline was added to the medium. F: A few years later, to determine the series of chemical reactions by which normal molds synthesize the amino acid arginine, biochemists used mutant Neurospora that couldnt grow on minimal medium unless arginine was added.
8 The experimental mutant mold lacked many enzymes. F: the researchers found that the mutant lacked a single enzyme that catalysed one specific step in arginine synthesis.
Unit 8
Inheritance
Introduction
Read the following passage and listen to the story about Gregor Mendels life. Find six false facts in the story you hear.
An original text in Students Book:
Before settling down as a monk in the monastery of St. Thomas in Brünn (now Brno, in the Czech Republic), Gregor Mendel tried his hand at several pursuits, including health care and teaching. To earn his teaching certificate, Mendel attended the University of Vienna for 2 years, where he studied botany and mathematics, among other subjects. This training proved crucial to his later experiments, which were the foundation for the modern science of genetics. At St. Thomas in the mid-1800s, Mendel carried out both his monastic duties and a groundbreaking series of experiments on inheritance in the common edible pea. Although Mendel worked without knowledge of genes or chromosomes, we can more easily follow his experiments after a brief look at some modern genetic concepts.
Six false facts are given in bold:
Before settling down as a monk in the monastery of St. Thomas in Brünn, (now Brno, in the Czech Republic), Gregor Mendel tried his hand at several pursuits, including teaching health care. To earn his medical certificate, Mendel attended the University of Vienna for 2 years, where he studied botany and mathematics only. This training proved very important to his later experiments, which were the foundation for the modern science of genetics. At St. Thomas in the mid- 1700 s, Mendel carried out both his monastic duties and broke ground in a series of experiments on inheritance in the common edible pea. Although Mendel knew little about genes or chromosomes, we can more easily follow his experiments after a brief look at some modern genetic concepts.
Unit 9
Fungi
Introduction
How do fungi affect humans? Listen to the text and answer the question.
Edible mushrooms are the most obvious fungal contribution to human welfare, but fungi have many other, less visible but more important impacts as well. Many of these impacts are positive, and some fungal benefits extend far beyond mere gastronomic concerns. For example, as decomposers, fungi make an incalculable contribution to ecosystems. The extracellular digestive activities of many fungi liberate nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus compounds and minerals that can be used by plants. If fungi and bacteria were suddenly to disappear, the consequences would be disastrous. Nutrients would remain locked in the bodies of dead plants and animals, the recycling of nutrients would grind to a halt, soil fertility would rapidly decline, and waste and organic debris would accumulate. In short, ecosystems would collapse.
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Although the health of ecosystems depends on the relentless nature of fungal feeding, penetrating fungal filaments can have adverse consequences as well. Parasitic fungi, for instance, cause disease. In humans, such fungi cause a range of diseases such as ringworm and athletes foot, which infect the skin; valley fever and histoplasmosis, which infect the lungs; and common vaginal yeast infections. Fungi also cause the majority of plant diseases. The fungi that cause chestnut blight and Dutch elm disease have drastically reduced American chestnut and elm tree populations. Fungal parasites also result in billions of dollars in crop losses annually from diseases such as corn smut.
The fungal impact on agriculture is not entirely negative, however. Fungal parasites that attack insects and other arthropod pests can be an important ally in pest control. Farmers who wish to reduce their dependence on toxic and expensive chemical pesticides are increasingly turning to biological methods of pest control, including the application of fungal pesticides. Fungal pathogens are currently used to control a variety of pests, including termites, rice weevils, tent caterpillars, aphids, and citrus mites.
Fungi, of course, also make an important contribution to human nutrition. This contribution goes far beyond the obvious use of wild and cultivated mushrooms. Other fungi, such as the rare and prized truffle, are also consumed directly. Of greater importance, however, are the less visible manifestations of fungal activities. In particular, fungi are responsible for making bread rise, for converting grape juice to wine, for the distinctive flavor of many cheeses, and for the bubbles (and alcohol) in beer. Our diets would certainly be a lot duller without the help we get form fungal partners.
Unit 10
The Evolution of Hormones
Introduction
Now listen to the summary of key concepts concerning the endocrine system of the animal body and get ready to retell it.
Summary of Key Concepts
What are the characteristics of animal hormones?
A hormone is a chemical secreted by cells in one part of the body that is transported in the bloodstream to another part of the body, where it affects the activity of specific target cells. Four types of molecules are known to act as hormones: peptides, amino-acid derivatives, steroids, and prostaglandins.
Most hormones act on their target cells in one of two ways: (1) Peptide hormones and amino-acid derivatives bind to receptors on the surface of target cells and activate intracellular second messengers, such as cyclic AMP. The second messengers then alter the metabolism of the cell. (2) Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma membranes of the target cells and bind with receptor proteins in the cytoplasm. The hormone-receptor complex travels to the nucleus and promotes the transcription of specific genes. Thyroid hormones also penetrate the plasma membrane but diffuse into the nucleus, where they bind to receptors associated with the chromosomes and influence gene transcription.
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Hormone action is commonly regulated through negative feedback, a process in which a hormone causes changes that inhibit further secretion of that hormone.
What are the structures and functions of the mammalian endocrine system?
Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, which are clusters of cells embedded within a network of capillaries. Hormones are secreted into the extracellular fluid and diffuse into the capillaries. The major endocrine glands of the human body are the hypothalamus pituitary complex, the thyroid and parathyroid glands, the pancreas, the sex organs, and the adrenal glands. Prostaglandins, unlike other hormones, are not secreted by discrete glands but are synthesized and released by many cells of the body. Other endocrine organs include the pineal gland, thymus, kidneys, heart, and the stomach and small intestine.
Unit 11
The Immune Response
Introduction
What are the key characteristics of the immune response? Listen to the text and say whether the following sentences are true or false.
Phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, the inflammatory response, and fever are all nonspecific defenses; their role is to prevent or overcome any microbial invasion of the body. Unfortunately, however, these nonspecific defenses are not impregnable. When they fail to do the job, the body mounts a highly specific immune response directed against the particular organism that has successfully invaded the body.
The essential features of the immune response to infection were recognized more than 2000 years ago by the Greek historian Thucydides. He observed that occasionally someone would contract a disease, recover, and never catch that particular disease again the person had become immune. With rare exceptions, however, immunity to one disease confers no protection against other diseases. Thus, the immune system attacks one type of microbe, overcomes it, and provides future protection against that microbe but no others. This is why we refer to the immune response as a specific defense against invasion.
The immune system consists of about 2 trillion lymphocytes, a kind of white blood cell. Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood and lymph, though many are clustered in specific organs, particularly the thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen. The immune response arises from interactions among the various types of lymphocytes and the molecules that they produce. The theatre of the immune response has a large cast of characters and is difficult to follow without a program. The table below provides a brief overview of the major actors and their roles.
The key actors in the immune response are two types of lymphocytes, called B cells and T cells. Like all white blood cells, B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes arise from precursor cells in the bone marrow. Some of these lymphocyte precursors are released into the bloodstream and come to rest in the thymus, where they complete their differentiation into T (for thymus) cells. In contrast, B cells differentiate in the bone marrow itself. The two cell types play quite different roles in the immune response, but immune responses produced by both B cells and T cells consist of the same three fundamental steps: (1) recognizing the invader, (2) launching a successful attack to overcome the invader, and (3) retaining a memory of the invader to ward off future infections.
1 The Greek physician Thucydides recognized the essential features of the immune response to the infection more than 2000 years ago. F: physician
2 Immunity to one disease always confers no protection against other diseases. F: always
3 We refer to the immune response as a specific defense against invasion. T
4 Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood. F: and lymph
5 T cells and B cells play similar roles in the immune response. F: similar
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Unit 12
Animal Behaviour
Introduction
I. Listen to the text and determine differences of innate and learned behaviour.
Although all animal behaviour is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, it can be useful to distinguish between behaviours whose development is not highly dependent on external factor and behaviours that require more extensive environmental stimuli in order to develop behaviours in the first category are sometimes designated as innate and can be performed properly the first time an animal encounters the appropriate stimulus. Innate behaviours include kineses, in which animals orient by varying the speed of essentially random movements, stopping when they encounter favorable conditions. In contrast, taxes are directed movements toward or away from specific stimuli. A fixed action pattern is a complex innate behaviour elicited by a specific stimulus called a releaser. Learning can in some cases modify the releasers for fixed action patterns.
Behaviour that changes in response to input from an animals social and physical environment is said to be learned. Learning is especially adaptive in environments that are changing and unpredictable, and learning can modify innate behaviour to make it more appropriate.
Among the diverse array of learning methods are imprinting, habituation, conditioning, trial and error, and insight. Imprinting is a special kind of learning that occurs during a limited sensitive period early in life. This form of simple learning typically involves attachment between parent and offspring or learning the features of a future mate.
Habituation is the decline in response to a harmless stimulus that is repeated frequently. It commonly modifies innate escape responses or defensive responses.
During classical conditioning, an animal learns to make a reflexive response, such as withdrawal or salivation, to a stimulus that did not originally elicit that response. During operant conditioning, an animal learns to make a new response, such as pressing a button, to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment.
Trial-and-error learning can modify innate behaviour or can produce new behaviour as a result of rewards and punishments provided by the environment.
Insight, the most complex form of learning, can be considered a form of mental trial-and-error learning. An animal showing insight makes a new and adaptive response to an unfamiliar situation.
Although the distinction between innate and learned behaviour is conceptually useful, the distinction is not sharp in naturally occurring behaviours. In virtually all behaviours, learning and instinct interact to produce adaptive behaviour. Certain types of learning, such as imprinting, occur instinctively, during a rigidly defined time span. Instinctive responses are typically modified by experience. Learning allows animals to modify these innate responses so that they occur only with appropriate stimuli.
1. Audesirk, Gerald, Audesirk, Teresa. Biology: Life on Earth. Fifth Edition. - University of Colorado at Denver. Prentice Hall, 1999.
2. Lingvo 10. - . ABBYY, 2005.
3. Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. Third Edition. Oxford University Press, 2005.
4. . - , 2002.
5. ., . . , ., 1988.
6. www.elementy.ru.
7. - . - 3- . - . . ... - ., 1993.
8. .. Learn to read science. . ., 2005.
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A
acorn
acquire
ACTH ,
adapt
adenosine diphosphate
adenosine triphosphate
adrenal medulla ,
aeons
aerobe [¢eərəub]
affect
alert
alga [¢ælgə](pl. algae)
allele (dominant, recessive) (, )
ameliorate
anaerobe [¢ænərəub]
appropriate , ;
arthropod
assault ,
assemblage ;
athletes foot ,
atrial natriuretic peptide
autosome
B
B cell (-)
base-pairing rule
basidium (pl. basidia)
beak
become obvious
biosphere
blood clotting
bond
bone marrow
boon
breakdown
broth ;
bug ;
burrow
by-product
C
calcium [¢kælsıəm]
Cambrian period
arpel
cast
catalyst
catalyze
catalyzed reaction
centriole
chestnut blight
chirp ,
chitin
chlorine
chloroplast
cholecystokinin
chromatophore
chromatophorotropic ()
cichlid fish
circulatory
citrulline
club fungi (basidiomycetes) ,
coach , ;
coenzyme
coiled ,
colour blindness
community
compete
competition for survival and reproduction
complex organic molecule
complementarity
conditioning ,
conduct water from roots to leaves
confer ,
conquer ,
conversion of matter and energy
convert , ( )
corrugate
couple with ,
cricket
crop up ;
cross-fertilization
crossing over ( )
cyanobacteria [sa¢ıənəbæk¢tıərıə]
cytoplasm [¢saıtəplæzm]
D
decompose
deftly ,
dehydration synthesis [dı:haı¢dreıò(ə)n]
deoxyribose
derive from
devastate , ,
differential reproduction
differentiate , ,
diffuse
digestive [dı¢destıv] tract
dimple ,
diploid
disaccharide [dıs¢əkəraıd]
discrete ,
dissolve ()
distinctively
diverse [daı¢və:s]/ diversity /
drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP
draw attention
droppings
ductless
dung fungus (Sordaria fumicola)
dusting
Dutch elm disease
dye
E
edible pea
efficient
embedded , ,
emerge ;
encode
encounter
endergonic reactions
enriched with
entropy
environmental extremes
enzyme function
epinephrine ,
ergot
erythropoietin
escape ,
evaporate
evolution by natural selection
evolutionary transformations
exergonic reactions
exocrine
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expose
extinction
F
fascinating
fertile
finch
fit
flow of matter
flu strain
follicle
foothold ;
forensic
fossil (remains)
fungus (pl. fungi) [¢fΛngəs, ¢fΛndı] ,
fuse
G
gamete [¢gæmı:t]
gauze ,
gene locus
generate
generation
genetic makeup
genotype
genus (pl. genera)
German shepherd
germinate ,
gill ,
give off energy
glucagon
glucocorticoids
go extinct
groove ,
gull
H
habitat /
habituation ( )
hamster
haploid
hatch ,
helium
hemoglobin [hı:məu¢gləubın]
hemorrhage
heredity
heterozygous [het ərəu¢zıgəs]
hind limbs
histocompatibility
histoplasmosis
homicide
homologous nucleotide [¢nju:klıətaıd]
homozygous
humanity
hybrid [¢haıbrıd]
hyphae
I
ignite ,
imperfect fungi (deuteromycetes)
impregnable ;
incentive
increase rapidly
individual (n) (.)
inflammatory
initiate ,
innate ;
insight
interaction
intruder
invader ,
invertebrates
involve
iodine [¢aıəudı:n]
J
jar
juvenile ,
K
kinesis ()
L
lack backbone
lacrimal
leave offspring
liberate
linkage
living / non-living matter/ objects / /
lizard
luteinizing hormone
lymphocyte [¢lımfəsaıt]
M
macrophage ,
maggot
magnesium
maintain the level of pH pH
maintain a population
mate
measles [mi:zlz]
meiosis [mı¢əusıs]
Mendels law of segregation
minced
mislead
modification
mold [¢məuld]
monosaccharide
morel
mRNA (messenger RNA) ( )
multicellular
mumps
mushroom (v)
mutualistic
mycelium [maı¢sı:lıəm]
mycorrhiza
N
natural population
nematode, roundworm ,
nutrients
O
observe
observer
obtain resources
organelle
organic molecule
origin of species
originally
originate ,
ovary
overall genetic composition of a population
oxygen-starved
oxytocin
ozone layer
P
Paleozoic era
parathormone ,
parental generation
pass on genetic differences
pathway
peat bog
perform a (single) function ()
petal [¢petl]
petrified
pest
phagocytic [¢fægəusaıtık]
phenotype
phosphorus
photosynthetic organism
phylum
plant resin
plasma membrane
plasmid
pollen
polymerase
polysaccharide
population
posterior pituitary hormones
potassium
prebiotic
Precambrian period
precursor cell -
predator
preserve
prickly pear cactus ( )
primeval [praı¢mı:v(ə)l] Earth
primordial
primordial soup
proofbreading ( )
properties
provide
puffball
Punnett square method (by R.C.Punnett)
R
reach / achieve high concentrations
reactant molecule -
reduce
relatively
release
releaser ; ; ,
remain constant
remnant
rennin ,
replication ,
reproduce
requisite
resemble
reserve
reside in the cytoplasm
respiratory distress
retina
revamp ,
reveal ,
reverse transcriptase (- -)
ringworm
roam
roan
rock ledge
rudimentary
rust
S
sac fungi (ascomycetes)
scholarship
scratch ,
seasonal molting
secretin ,
sediments
self-fertilization
sequence
septum ,
set of substances
severe
sex-linked
shallow sea
shed (, )
shelf fungus (monkey-stool) ,
shell ,
Silurian period
single-stranded , ( )
smut
sodium
soft fruit rot
sparsely ,
spawn
spectator
sperm
spleen
spontaneously
sporangium [spə¢rændıəm] (pl. sporangia)
stamen [¢steımen]
steam
straightforward
stud ,
subcellular structure
substrate molecule
subvert
succumb
sulphur [¢sΛlfə]
survival of the fittest
swab off
swarm
T
T cell -
tadpole
taxis
test cross
thymine
thyroxine
tissue
tortoise
trigger ,
trisomy
true-breeding
turtle
U
undergo a series of reactions
unerringly ,
universe
UV light / radiation /
V
valence
variation in traits
vascular
vast increase
vessel ,
via [¢vaıə]
vital
W
ward off , (, )
waste products
water loss
waterproof coating
water-soluble
withstand
woodpecker
worm
X
X-ray diffraction
Y
yeast (bakers yeast, brewers yeast) (, )
yield ,
Z
zygospore ascus (pl. asci [¢æsaı])
zygote fungi (zygomycetes)
3
Unit 1. Life and Levels of Organization of Living Matter 6
Grammar: Passive Voice
Unit 2. Biological Molecules 21
Grammar: The Use of Passive Structures
Unit 3. Energy Flow in the Life of a Cell 31
Grammar: Ved[2] Forms
Unit 4. Principles of Evolution 39
Grammar: Ving[3] Forms
Unit 5. The History of Life on Earth 52
Grammar: -Ing and ed Participles; -ing and ed Participle Constructions
Unit 6. Biotechnology 61
Grammar: Infinitive
Unit 7. The Double Helix 77
Grammar: Modal Verbs: Can and Could
Unit 8. Inheritance 91
Grammar: Modal Verbs: May and Might
Unit 9. Fungi 108
Grammar: Modal Verbs: Must, Need to, Have to and Be to
Unit 10. The Evolution of Hormones 122
Grammar: Modal Verbs: Should and Ought to
Unit 11. The Immune Response 134
Grammar: Modal Verbs: Shall and Will
Unit 12. Animal Behaviour 145
Grammar: Conditionals
156
174
- 175
[1] Learn to Read Science, ex.8, 9, p. 67.
[2] Ved means past participle.
[3] Ving means present participle.
