Design
Text A
Reading. Read the text and try to guess the meaning of the words in bold. Check your variants in the dictionary.
Information Systems
An information system collects, stores, and processes data to provide useful, accurate, and timely information, typically within the context of an organization. Although an information system does not necessarily have to be computerized, today most information systems rely on computers and communications networks to store, process, and transmit information with far more efficiency than would be possible with a manual system. In this unit, the term “ information system ” refers to a system that uses computers and usually includes communications networks.
An information system is used by the people in an organization and its customers. You've undoubtedly used many information systems – for example, when registering for classes, getting cash from an ATM, and purchasing merchandise on the Web. You might even work for a business or nonprofit organization where you have access to an information system. Not everyone in an organization uses an information system in the same way. An information system must support the needs of people who engage in many different organizational activities.
An information system can help the people in an organization perform their jobs more quickly and effectively by automating routine tasks, such as reordering inventory, taking customer orders, or sending out renewal notices. Information systems can also help people solve problems. One of the major functions of an information system is to help people make decisions in response to problems.
Because organizations have different missions and face different problems, they require different kinds of information systems. An information system might have one or more of the following components: a transaction processing system, a management information system, a decision support system, or an expert system. Let’s take a closer look at a transaction processing system.
In an information system context, a transaction is an exchange between two parties that is recorded and stored in a computer system. When you order a product at a Web site, buy merchandise in a store, or withdraw cash from an ATM, you are involved in a transaction.
Many organizational activities involve transactions. A transaction processing system (TPS) provides a way to collect, process, store, display, modify, or cancel transactions. Most transaction processing systems allow many transactions to be entered simultaneously. The data collected by a TPS is typically stored in databases, and can be used to produce a regularly scheduled set of reports, such as monthly bills, weekly paychecks, annual inventory summaries, daily manufacturing schedules, or periodic check registers.
Early transaction processing systems, such as banking and payroll applications of the 1970s, used batch processing to collect and hold a group of transactions for processing until the end of a day or pay period. An entire batch was then processed without human intervention, until all transactions were completed or until an error occurred.
In contrast to batch processing, most modern transaction processing systems use online processing —a real-time method in which each transaction is processed as it is entered. Such a system is often referred to as an OLTP system (online transaction processing system ). OLTP uses a “ commit or rollback ” strategy to ensure that each transaction is processed correctly. This strategy is crucial because most transactions require a sequence of steps, and every step must succeed for the transaction to be completed.
If you withdraw cash from an ATM the bank’s computer must make sure your account contains sufficient funds before it deducts the withdrawal from your account and allows the ATM to deliver cash. If the ATM is out of cash, however, the transaction fails, and the withdrawal should not be deducted from your account. A TPS can commit toa transaction and permanently update database records only if every step of the transaction can be successfully processed. If even one step fails, the entire transaction fails anda rollback returns the records to their original state.
Although a TPS excels at maintaining transaction data entered by clerical personnel and online customers, its reporting capabilities are limited. A typical TPS generates detail reports, which provide a basic record of completed transactions. However, managers need more sophisticated reports to help them analyze data.
Comprehension check. Mark the following statements as True or False.
1. An information system usually helps people to find solutions to their problems.
2. You aren’t involved in a transaction when you order a product online.
3. All POS systems automatically calculate, change and identify customers who previously wrote bad checks.
4. Everyone in an organization uses an information system in the same way.
5. An information system has to be computerized.
6. A TPS is one of the components of an information system.
Vocabulary practice
1. Match the words with their synonyms.
accurate subtract
generate evolve
deduct essential
commit perform
crucial complicated
sophisticated exact
2. Fill in the blanks choosing from the variants given.
1. A group of people working together to accomplish a goal is a(n) ….
a) organization b) colleagues c) developers d) corporation
2. An information system must... the needs of people who participate in different organizational activities.
a) protect b) share c) support d) maintain
3. Some POS systems automatically … credit cards.
a) check b) verify c) examine d) process
4. Many TPS … plenty of transactions to be entered at a time.
a) allow b) permit c) prohibit d) let
5. An information system ability to assist with problem solving and decision making depends on data it collects and makes ….
a) shared b) closed c) accessible d) available
6. A TPS simply … data.
a) stores b) records c) processes d) keeps
3. Make two-word combinations using the words in columns and then fill in the gaps in the following sentences.
A: a) batch B:report
b) online method
c) routine processing
d) payroll tasks
e) detail customer
f) real-time system
1. First transaction processing systems used ….
2. If you buy goods on the Internet you are ….
3 Online processing is … in which each transaction is processed as it is entered.
4. A … provides a basic record of completed transactions.
5. Without a … we can’t calculate deductions and taxes, track employee hours generate paychecks.
6. Often repeated activities are called ….
4. Fill in the gaps in the text.
_1_ systems play a key role in helping organizations achieve goals, which are set forth in a _ 2 _ statement. Workers use information systems to produce and manipulate _ 3 _. Transaction _ 4 _ systems provide an organization with a way to collect, modify, display or _5_ transactions. These systems encompass activities such as general accounting, inventory _ 6_, and e-commerce. _ 7 _ information systems typically build on the data collected by a TPS to produce _ 8_ that managers use to make the business decisions needed to solve routine, structured problems.
Speaking. Discuss the following questions.
1. What is an information system?
2. Who uses information systems?
3. How do information systems help people in an organization?
4. Do organizations require different kinds of information systems?
5. What is a transaction?
6. What is a transaction processing system?
7. What are the limitations of transaction processing systems?
Text B
Pre-reading. Match the meaning of the following English words and their Russian equivalents.
| 1discrete step | a) внедрение |
| 2 checklist | b) пошаговый режим |
| 3 implementation | c) перечень |
| 4 milestone | d) промежуточный этап разработки |
Reading. Read the text and try to guess the meaning of the words in bold. Check your variants in the dictionary.
Systems Analysis
Whether you are a part of a team that is developing a complex corporate information system, or you are developing a small information system for your own use, you will be more likely to succeed if you analyze the purpose of the information system, carefully design the system, test it thoroughly, and document its features. In this text you’ll learn about the planning and analysis that’s required for an information system.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
An information system progresses through several phases as it is developed, used, and finally retired. These phases are referred to as a system development life cycle – usually referred to as the SDLC.
Planning
Phase Analysis
Phase Design
Phase Implementation
Phase Maintenance
Phase
The original waterfall SDLC, shown above, approaches each phase as a discrete step in the development process. One phase is supposed to be completed before the next phase can begin.
The SDLC is an outline of a process that helps develop successful information systems. The process of planning and building an information system according to the SDLC is referred to as systems analysis and design.
Planning Phase
For creating an information system it’s important to have a plan. Initial plans for an information system are developed during the planning phase. The planning phase for an information system project includes the following activities:
- Assemble the project team
- Justify project
- Choose development methodology
- Develop a project schedule
- Produce a Project Development Plan.
The main goal of these activities is to create a Project Development Plan. Before the project proceeds beyond the planning phase, the Project Development Plan must typically be reviewed and approved by the management. This planning document includes:
A short description of the project, including its scope
A justification for the project, which includes an estimate of the project costs and potential financial benefits
A list of project team participants
A schedule for the project, including an outline of its phases
Project planning begins in the planning phase but stretches throughout the entire project. As the project takes shape, project managers break down the work into tasks and milestones, which can be scheduled and assigned. As tasks are completed, the schedule can be updated and adjusted. Project management software is an effective tool for planning and scheduling. It helps managers track and visualize the complex interactions between tasks. Popular examples include open source software, such as Open WorkBench, and commercial software, such as Microsoft Project.
ANALYSIS PHASE
The analysis phase begins after the project team selects a development methodology, draws up the Project Development Plan, and receives permission to proceed from management. The goal of the analysis phase is to produce a list of requirements for a new or revised information system.
Typically, a new information system is designed to replace a system or process that is already in place. It is important to study the current system to understand its strengths and weaknesses before planning a new system.
System requirements are the criteria for successfully solving problems identified in an information system. These requirements guide the design and implementation for a new or updated information system. They also serve as an evaluation checklist at the end of the development project, so they are sometimes called success factors. A new or updated information system should meet the requirements the project team defines.
The project team determines requirements by interviewing users and studying successful information system that solve problems similar to those in the current system. Another way to determine requirements is to construct a prototype as an experimental or trial version of an information system. Often the prototype is not a fully functioning system because it is designed to demonstrate only selected features that might be incorporated into a new information system. A systems analyst shows the prototype to users, who evaluate which features of the prototype are important for the new information system.
After the project team studies the current system and then determines what the new system should do, system requirements are incorporated into a document called a System Requirements Report that describes the objectives for an information system. If management or the project sponsor approves the report, the project can move on to the design phase.
Comprehension check. Indicate the paragraph where the following ideas are found in the text.
1. These plans are developed during the planning phase.
2. You can determine the system requirements by this way.
3. A list of requirements for a new system should be produced at this phase.
4. Several phases are required for information process.
5. A plan is inseparable part of an information system.
6. There are plenty of tools for diagramming and specifying the current system.
Vocabulary practice
1. Match up the words that are opposite in the meaning.
succeed essential
permission computerized
updated fail
manual destroy
create out out of date
obsolete ban
2. Fill in the blanks choosing from the variants given.
1. Project management software is an effective tool for … and scheduling.
a) planning b) maintenance c) analysis d) development
2. “A project team” is a group of people who are assigned to analyze and … an information system.
a) maintain b) develop c) implement d) test
3. Users and analysts work together to identify problems and look for solution in a development process called … application design.
a) co-operative b) united c) joint d) mutual
4. A modified waterfall SDLC allows to … between SDLC phases
a) overlap b) break c) skip d) stretch
5. A System Requirements Report describes the … for a new information system.
a) innovations b) ideas c) objectives d) goals
6. It is difficult to complete the design phase until system … have a chance to work with software tools that are purchased in the implementation phase.
a) analysts b) developers c) builders d) administrators
3. Make three-word combinations using the words in columns and then fill in the gaps in the following sentences.
A: a) information B: source C: design
b) joint requirements software
c) project application plan
d) open system report
e) system management project
f) project development
1. … describes the objectives for an information system.
2. … is developed during the planning phase.
3. … must be reviewed and approved by the management.
4. You can use … for planning and scheduling.
5. OpenWork Bench and Microsoft Project are …, aren’t they?
6. … is based on the idea that the best information systems are designed when end-users and system analysts work together as equal partners.
4. Fill in the gaps in the text.
The process of planning and building an information system is referred to as systems _ 1_. The development process is supervised by an organization’s Information Systems (IS) department, but the _ 2 _ team includes members from other departments as well. System development follows some type of system development _ 3_ cycle (SDLC), which consists of several phases. In the _4_ SDLC one phase of the SDLC must be completed before the next phase begins. A project begins with a _ 5 _ phase in which a member of the IS department creates a Project Development Plan. The project team then proceeds to the _ 6_ phase, with the goal of producing a list of requirements for a new or revised information system.
Speaking. Discuss the following questions.
1. What is a system development life cycle?
2. How does an information project begin?
3. What does the planning phase entail?
4. Do computers offer tools for planning activities?
5. How does the project team determine what the new system should do?
6. How does the project team document system requirements?
7. What does the project team do with system requirements?
Text C
Pre-reading. Match the terms with their definitions.
1. centralized processing a) describes the information system problem and the requirements for the solution.
2. distributed processing b) describes the way the information system’s software should interact with users, store data, process data, and format reports.
3. request for proposal (RFP) c) in which processing tasks are distributed to servers and workstations.
4. request for quotation (RFQ) d) is a request for a formal price quotation on a list of hardware and software.
5. application specifications e) in which data is processed on a centrally located computer.
Reading. Read the text and try to guess the meaning of the words in bold. Check your variants in the dictionary.
SYSTEM DESIGN
In the design phase of the SDLC, the project team must figure out how the new system will fulfill the requirements specified in the System Requirements Report. The project team should identify several potential hardware and software solutions by brainstorming and researching case studies at Web sites and in computer magazines. When evaluating hardware solutions for a new information system, the project team considers the overall architecture of the information system based on level of automation, processing methodology, and network technology. Some information systems provide a higher level of automation than others. For instance, a point-of-sale system with a low level of automation might require the checkout clerk to enter credit card numbers from a keypad. At a higher level of automation, a magnetic strip reader automates the process of entering a credit card number. A further level of automation is achieved by using a pressure-sensitive digitizing pad and stylus to collect customer signatures.
An information system can be designed for centralized and distributed processing. Distributed processing in a client/server or peer-to-peer environment is very popular because it provides high levels of processing power at a low cost. Virtually every information system requires a network, so the project team must examine network alternatives, such as LANs, extranets, intranets, and the Internet. Many information systems require a complex mixture of networks, such as a LAN in each branch office connected to a company intranet, with customers accessing selected data using the Internet.
The project team might consider software alternatives, such as whether to construct the system “from scratch” in a programming language or select a turnkey system. An information system “from scratch” is usually costly, but offers the most flexibility for meeting the system requirements. An application development tool is essentially a type of software construction kit containing building blocks that can be assembled into a software product. It includes expert system shells and database management systems.
Commercial software for an information system is usually a series of preprogrammed software modules. It eliminates much of the design work required with programming languages or application development tools. It is available for standard business functions and market businesses and organizations. Although most commercial software has some customization options, in many cases, it cannot be modified to exactly meet every system requirement.
A turnkey system consists of hardware and commercial software designed to offer a complete information system solution. Like commercial software, a turnkey system must be extensively evaluated to determine whether it can satisfy system requirements.
To determine the best solution, the project team devises a list of criteria for comparing each potential solution. It isn’t complicated if the project team uses a decision support worksheet. After the project team selects a solution, the next task is to select the hardware and software. Sometimes the team knows exactly what brand, model, or version of hardware and software are required. At other times, the team has a general understanding, but needs vendor help selecting specific products. RFPs and RFQs help the team collect information for these important decisions. Technical criteria for hardware might include processing speed, reliability, upgradability, maintenance costs, and warranty. Technical criteria for software might include reliability, compatibility, and the availability of patches to fix program errors.
Next step depends on the type of solution selected. If a turnkey solution is selected, the next step might be to get approval to move into the implementation phase of the SDLC. In contrast, if the project team selected a solution that requires custom programming, the team’s systems analysts will create a set of application specifications. Many project failures are often referred to as feature creep because new features tend to creep into the development process with a snowballing effect on other features, costs and schedules. Some specifications might be changed during the development process because of changes in business needs, laws, etc.. Proposed changes should be managed within a formal process that includes written change requests.
Comprehension check. Choose the ending for each sentence from the two versions given.
1. Distributed processing in a client\server or peer-to-peer environment
a) is very popular because it provides high levels of processing power at a low price.
b) is very popular because it provides the highest levels of processing power at a high price.
2. A series of programmed software modules
a) eliminates much of the design work required with programming languages or application development tools.
b) requires much of the design work with programming languages or application development tools.
3. An application development tool is
a) essentially a type of software construction kit containing building blocks that can be assembled into a software product.
b) a software kit that can’t be assembled into a software product.
4. RFPs and RFQs help the team
a) collect information for the important decisions.
b) determine information for the important decisions.
5. Technical criteria for hardware might include
a) processing speed, reliability, upgradability, maintenance cost, and warranty.
b) reliability, compatibility, and the availability of patches to fix program errors.
6. Many project failures are often referred to as features creep
a) because of changes in needs.
b) because old features tend to creep into the development process.
Vocabulary practice
1. Which word does not belong to the group?
a) research, require, study, examine;
b) collect, gather, determine, take;
c) reliability, compatibility, digitizing, availability;
d) creep,steal, get into, include;
e) card, set, kit, collection;
f) sheave, block, database, pulley.
2. Fill in the missing words choosing from the variants given.
1. The project team should identify … potential hardware and software solutions.
a) all b) one from all c) some
2. Distributed processing provides … of processing power at a low cost.
a) high levels b) low levels c)intermediate levels
3. Many information systems require a complex mixture of networks, such as a LAN in each branch office … a company intranet.
a) separated from b) linked to c) built into
4. An application development tool is essentially a type of software construction kit containing building blocks that can be … a software product.
a) included into b) managed by c) put together into
5. A turnkey system consists of hardware and commercial software designed to … a complete information system solution.
a) suggest b) control c) design
6. A turnkey system must be extensively evaluated to determine weather it can … system requirements.
a) find out b) create c) satisfy
7. The team’s systems analysts will create … of application specifications.
a) data b) a series c) a criteria
3. Transform the given sentences using the words in brackets without any change in meanings.
1. Distributed processing in a client/server or peer-to-peer environment is very popular because it provides high levels of processing power at a low cost (means).
2. It eliminates much of the design work required with programming languages or application development tools (eliminated).
3. Most commercial software cannot be modified to exactly meet every system requirement (modification).
4. Like commercial software, a turnkey system must be extensively evaluated to determine whether it can satisfy system requirement (both … and).
5. At a higher level of automation, a magnetic strip reader automates the process of entering a credit card number (automatically).
6. A further level of automation is achieved by using a pressure-sensitive digitizing pad and stylus to collect customer signatures (collecting).
7. The project team should identify several potential hardware and software solutions by brainstorming and researching case studies at Web sites and in computer magazines (when).
4. Fill in the gaps in the text.
In the _ 1_ phase of the SDLC, the project team identifies solutions, evaluates those solutions, and then selects the best one. It is possible that a _2_ system might offer a complete hardware and software solution. The project team can use a _3_ support worksheet to evaluate solutions based on general, technical, and functional criteria. After the project team selects a solution, it can then select the specific hardware and software products to build the new information system. The project team might send out a request for _4 _, asking vendors to recommend a solution and specify hardware and software requirements. As an alternative, when team members know exactly what hardware and software they need for the solution, they can send out a request for _5_, which simply asks for vendor prices. After selecting hardware and software, the team can develop _ 6_ specifications that descried the way the new information system should interact with the user, store data, process data, and format reports.
Speaking. Discuss the following question.
1. What happens in the design phase?
2. How does the project team come up with solution?
3. What hardware alternatives are available?
4. What software alternatives are available?
5. How does the team choose the best solution?
6. How does the project team find the right hardware and software for the new information system?
7. What’s an RFP and RFQ?
8. How does the project team evaluate an RFP or RFQ?
9. What happens after the project team selects a solution?
10. What is the importance of application specifications?
Text D
Pre-reading. Match the terms with their definitions.
| A 1. system testing 2.integration testing 3. software customization 4.acceptance testing 5. unit testing 6. test area | a) is the process of modifying a commercial application to reflect an organization’s needs b) ensures that module operates reliably and correctly c) is performed to ensure that the modules operate together correctly d) is a place where software testing can occur without disrupting the organization’s regular information system, or it might be located on an entirely separate computer system e) ensures that all hardware and software components work together correctly f) is designed to verify that the new Information system works as required |
| B 7.user documentation 8. procedure handbook 9. help desk 10. system documentation | g) is staffed by technical support specialists familiar with the information system’s software h) describes a system’s features, hardware architecture, and programming i) describes how to interact with the system to accomplish specific tasks j) is a type of user documentation that contains step-by-step instructions for performing specific tasks |
| C 11. phased conversion 12. direct conversion 13. pilot conversion 14. parallel conversion | k) means that the old system is completely deactivated and the new system is immediately activated l) avoids some of the risk of direct conversion because the old system remains in service while some or all of the new system is activated m) works well with larger information systems that are modularized because the new system is activated one module at a time n) works well in organizations with several branches that have independent information processing systems because the new information system is activated at one branch at a time |
Reading. Read the text and try to guess the meaning of the words in bold. Check your variants in the dictionary.
