1. No one agrees to tolerate foreign overlordship any longer. 2. World peace is no longer an aspiration; it is the natural result of mutual efforts. 3. As a result of its victories and achievements the Soviet State immeasurably gained in prestige and authority in the international arena. 4. The war is not inevitable at all. 5. At first it was planned to build the Volga-Don Canal in six years, later it was decided to complete most of the work much earlier. 6. Georgia, at present, is a free and independent country. 7. At least half of the German war potential was destroyed in the last war. 8. The guerillas built up a strong defence line around the city and, in this way, tried to stop our advance.
B
1. We could not notice in the rotating shaft any vibrations at all. 2. At first man learned how to keep up a fire and then how to obtain it by rubbing dry sticks together or by striking sparks out of stone. 3. After many experiments we have at last liberated oxygen from this compound. 4. Experimentally, at least, the energies of the quantum levels of a nucleus are not sharply defined. 5. Some materials are found to lose their electrical charge at once. 6. About 300 stable isotopes are known at present in nature. 7. In fact, there is no difference in the lines of force or in their action whether the field is produced by a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. 8. The controlled release of nuclear energy promises to lead us into a new world in which the achievement of man will not be any longer limited by the supply of energy available to him.
C
1. Some substances are not stable in water at all. 2. The substance was at first purified and then subjected to strong heating. 3. At last the radio-message reached the expedition. 4. Most substances are known in at least three different states, viz.: a solid, a liquid, and a gaseous form. 5. Possessing domestic animals, primitive people had a constant supply of food and were no longer dependent on the outcome of their hunt which was not always a success. 6. Alternating current of high frequency tends to flow on the surface of a wire; thus the centre of the conduction is, in fact, of no use at all. 7. Neptunium-239 is unstable; it emits an electron from the molecule and, in this way, transforms into a new element.
II. , :
CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
The principal fuels used at present for making steam, are coal, coke, wood, charcoal, peat, mineral oil, and natural and artificial gas.
All kinds of fuel may, in fact, be virtually subdivided into three classes: solid, liquid, and gaseous.
All coals seem to be derived from vegetable origin and their differences appeared as a result of the varying conditions under which they were formed. Anthracite coal consists almost entirely of carbon and inorganic matters; it contains little or no hydrocarbon at all. Some varieties appear to approach graphite in their characteristics and are burned with difficulty unless at first mixed with other coals. Good anthracite is hard, compact, and lustrous. It burns with very little flame unless it is moist, and gives a very intense fire, free from smoke. Even when carefully used, it is liable to break up at high temperatures and, in this way, the fine pieces may be lost with the ash. Semi-anthracite contains some hydrocarbon, is less dense than anthracite, ignites at once, and burns readily with a short flame.
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Bituminous coals contain a large and varying per cent of hydrocarbons or bituminous matter. Their physical properties and behaviour, when burning, vary widely so that classification is difficult, though at least three kinds may be distinguished as follows: dry bituminous coals, caking bituminous coals and, at last, long-flaming bituminous coals. The latter has a strong tendency to produce smoke; some do and some do not cake at all while burning.
Charcoal is made by charring wood; it is no longer used for making steam but is widely applied for special metallurgical purposes.
Practicum
A
GRAVITY WAVE ANALYSIS FROM LIGO PROTOTYPE. The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO), when fully deployed, will consist of two facilities (Hanford, WA and Livingston, LA). At each site laser beams pass up and down two perpendicular 4-km-long vacuum pipes, reflecting repeatedly from mirrors hung from wires. The presence of a passing gravitational wave would announce itself by a flexing of space-time which would very slightly lengthen the path of light in one arm and shorten the path in the other arm, causing a subtle change in the interference pattern made by the converging light beams from the two arms. The full LIGO, by about November 2001, should be able to detect a strain, defined as the fractional change in the position of the mirrors divided by the length of the arm (4 km), of 10-21. This is the expected disturbance one expects from the gravity waves emitted by the coalescence of two solar-sized stars at a distance from Earth of 30-50 million light years. But before LIGO scientists possess their full instrument, they do have a 40-m prototype at Caltech, built for doing engineering studies but also capable of sensing gravity waves, albeit with the lesser strain sensitivity of a few times 10-19. Thus the LIGO team, while testing methods for searching (directly via gravity waves) for binary coalescences, have thereby rendered an upper limit for such events of less than one every two hours in our galaxy. This result is useful for the test of the procedures, but is not significant for astronomers, who have previously established more stringent upper bounds with electromagnetic waves (visible and radio).
AT THE INTERANTIONAL PHYSICS OLYMPIAD, held in July, the US team had its second-best showing since it started competing in 1986, with 3 gold medals and 2 silver medals brought home by the 5 high school students who participated. In informal rankings, the US placed 3rd out of the 62 countries that competed, after Russia and Iran. Taking place this year in Padua, Italy, where Galileo discovered the 4 Jupiter moons named after him, the Olympiad contains two days of grueling theoretical and experimental problems amounting to what is the worlds most difficult high-school physics test. For example, the students had to compute the precise trajectory of a space probe that uses Jupiters gravity as a slingshot a technique used in real life spacecraft such as Cassini. Gold medalists included Peter Onyisi (Arlington, VA), who had the tenth highest overall score out of the approximately 300 competitors at the Olympiad, Benjamin Mathews (Dallas, TX), and Andrew Lin (Wallingford, CT). Silver medalists include Jason Oh (Baltimore, MD) and Natalia Toro (Boulder, CO), who earlier this year also became the youngest person (at 14 years of age) ever to win the top prize of the Intel (formerly Westinghouse) Science Talent Search.
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IN-PLANE-GATE (IPG) TRANSISTORS can be excavated using nanomachining techniques. IPG transistors, in which the source, drain, and gate all lie in a plane rather than in a sandwich, might be especially useful for high-frequency applications. Scientists at the University of Hannover have carved out an IPG structure in a semiconductor surface using the probe from an atomic force microscope. The probe makes an incision into the material extending down about halfway toward a buried interface where, lodged between GaAs and AlGaAs layers, a reservoir of electrons is confined to a plane. The incisions from above do not penetrate into this two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) but they do shape (and can even pinch off) the conduction of the electrons. The Hannover researchers have also used their inscribing approach to make single-electron transistors (SETs), devices that register the coming and going of single electrons.
B
Larry Elliott and John Vidal in Seattle
Wednesday December 1, 1999
Riot police used red pepper gas to tackle thousands of anti-free trade activists yesterday as the biggest demonstration in the United States since the end of the Vietnam war erupted into violence.
Police closed off the downtown area of Seattle as 100,000 demonstrators marched on the hall where the opening ceremonies of the world trade talks were due to start and broke though police cordons into the main conference hotel.
Mounted police, armoured cars and an extra 3,000 officers had been deployed in an attempt to prevent the activists form disrupting the World Trade Organizations ministerial meeting. But the massive operation failed from the outset with VIPs like the UN secretary general, Kofi Annan, unable to get to the opening sessions.
Several British ministers and delegates were caught up in the violence. The trade and industry secretary, Stephen Byers, told journalists: I have been tear gassed, as he arrived at the conference centre.
Glenys Kinnock MEP, who witnessed the disturbances, complained about the intimidating behaviour of the riot police, while the development secretary, Clare Short, was trapped behind police lines inside the Sheraton hotel.
Amid fears of an assassination attempt on the WTOs director-general, Mike Moore, security around the delegates had been stepped up massively. Hospitals brought in extra supplies of anti-nerve gas drugs, fearing that the largely peaceful protest would be infiltrated by rightwing US terrorist groups.
Observing the carnival spirit of much of the demonstration earlier in the day, one Seattle resident said: This is the nearest we get to Mardi Gras. Protesters were dressed as turtles, Father Christmases, cows and butterflies and were serenaded by Beethovens 5th symphony, Tina Turner and drumming.
However, pepper gas was used later when several hundred protesters refused to move from the junction of Union and 6th streets. In separate incidents, demonstrations surrounded a police car and rolled barrels down a hill. Shop windows were broken and many arrests made.
One of the Chinese observers to the talks said: I think this is as significant for the west as Tiananmen Square was for us. It is unprecedented. Governments will have to respond.
Demonstrators have been planning protests in Seattle for several months to mark their opposition to the attempt to start a new round of trade liberalization talks. Representing a wide range of concerns in many countries, the groups include environmentalists, labor unions, farmers, churches, consumer groups, human rights bodies and anarchists.
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Undeterred by torrential rain, the protest marches started before dawn and were expected to last all day.
Delegates in the Sheraton were barricaded in by a human chain, while at least five different US government security agencies were present, including the FBI, CIA and Secret Services. All were issued with gas masks.
Security forces will remain on high alert today, when the US president, Bill Clinton, arrives to break the logjam at the talks themselves.
The protesters say that the WTO presides over a world trading system that is skewed in favor of rich countries and multinational companies, that it harms the environment and acts against the interests of consumers.
Mr Moore has admitted that the WTO needs to reform but says further liberalization is the key to raising living standards and protecting the environment. He is seeking to focus the next set of talks on helping the least developed countries.
He said: I hope the debate is peaceful. It is difficult to maintain a dialogue if people do foolish things that disrupt the flow of information. That is disappointing.
Riotous clashes between police and hundreds of protesters at Euston station last night marred the end of a rally tying in with a series of worldwide protests against the WTO summit, Will Woodward writes.
A police officer was rugby-tackled to the ground by a demonstrator as people began to run out of the station complex. Bottles, cans and wooden poster poles were thrown at riot police who mounted a barricade. A police van was overturned and set alight.
As the flames started to engulf the van, another wave of riot police with shields raised stormed forward, forcing protesters, obscured by thick toxic smoke, back from the vehicle.
Until then the demonstration had been relatively peaceful, despite sporadic kill the bill chants from some of the estimated 2,000 crowd.
The organizers, a loose disorganization called Reclaim the Streets, had made the Euston rally the centre of the protest to condemn tube privatization as the most blatant example of market madness in London.
C
