4 :
1. .
2. , ( ).
3. .
1.
I. , . . .
1. The country having a budget deficit, inflation may follow.
2. John having left the room to ring for a taxi, Mary sat down again to wait for him.
3. But I was a little nervous, there being something to report.
4. The officer sat with his long fine hands lying on the table perfectly still.
5. He sat on the sofa, his legs crossed.
II. , . .
1. I hope you dont mind her being given two weeks notice.
2. He is aware of the fact of Mary getting married.
3. He couldnt put up with the idea of our having to work there another six months.
4. We were happy of our working several years under the guidance of this well-know scientist.
5. The real reason for Mrs.Chievly returning to London was her personal interests in business.
III. , . . .
1. All I want is for Jack to get out of here.
2. There was no need for him to be economical.
3. He was listening attentively to the chairman speak.
4. This firm is said to receive high profits.
5. I believed her to be knitting in the next room.
IV. . , .
1. If it didnt rain now, we would go to the country.
2. If you lied to me now, I would never believe you in future.
3. You wouldnt have made this mistake, if you had taken notice of my words then.
4. If he were younger, he would go camping too.
5. If labour resources are used properly, labour efficiency will grow.
V. .
TRANSPORT SYSTEM OF THE USA
The development of transport facilities was very important in the growth of the United States. The first travel routes were natural waterways. No surfaced roads existed until the 1790s, when the first turnpikes were built. Besides the overland roads, many canals were constructed between the late 18th century and 1850 to link navigable rivers and lakes in the eastern United States and in the Great Lakes region. Steam railways began to appear in the East in the 1820s. The first transcontinental railway was constructed between 1862 and 1869 by the Union Pacific and Central Pacific companies, both of which received large subsidies from the federal government. Transcontinental railways were the chief means of transport used by European settlers who populated the West in the latter part of the 19th century. The railways continued to expand until 1917, when their length reached a peak of about 407,000 km. Since then motor transport became a serious competitor to the railway both for passengers and freight.
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Air transport began to compete with other modes of transport after World War I. Passenger service began to gain importance in 1920s, but not until the beginning of commercial jet craft after World War II did air transport become a leading mode of travel.
During the early 1990s railways annually handled about 37.5 per cent of the total freight traffic; trucks carried 26 per cent of the freight, and oil pipelines conveyed 20 per cent. Approximately 16 per cent was shipped on inland waterways. Although the freight handled by airlines amounted to only 0.4 per cent of the total, much of the cargo consisted of high-priority or high-value items.
Private cars about 81 per cent of passengers. Airlines are the second leading mover of people, carrying more than 17 per cent of passengers. Buses are responsible for 1.1 per cent, and railways carry 0.6 per cent of passengers.
2.
I. , . . .
1. A bank is a business, its owners and managers aiming to maximize profits.
2. The novel having been read, Jane put it aside.
3. The ships band did not play in the morning, it being Sunday.
4. I wont speak with him staring at me like that.
5.The duster refolded and restored, he threw his legs across the saddle.
II. , . .
1. Nobody objected to his being given the position of assistant.
2.Who is interested in his changing his convictions?
3. She was interested in Sir Robert refusing to make his report in Parliament.
4. I couldnt rely on his setting the matter in the right way?
5. I dont mind his helping you.
III. , . . .
1. It was difficult for him to do anything else.
2. The wall was too high for anything to be visible.
3. I know him to be an honest man.
4. The new business was believed to improve the situation in the market.
5. She hated her son to be separated from her.
IV. . , .
1. If we had booked tickets beforehand, we would not stand in a queue now to get them.
2. He would certainly have translated this article, yesterday.
3. If John were not so selfish, he wouldnt have gone to the seaside alone last year.
4. If studied thoroughly, market forces can help to increase profits.
5. But for my smile, he would have believed me.
V. .
HISTORY OF ROBOTICS
The concept of robots dates back to ancient times, when some myths told of mechanical beings brought to life. Such automata also appeared in the clockwork figures of medieval churches, and in the 18th century some clockmaker s gained fame for the clever mechanical figures that they constructed. Today the term automaton is usually applied to these handcrafted, mechanical (rather than electromechanical) devices that imitate the motions of living creatures. Some of the robots used in advertising and entertainment are actually automata, even with the addition of remote radio control.
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The term robot itself is derived from the Czech word robota, meaning compulsory labour. It was first used by the Czech novelist and playwright Karel Chapek, to describe a mechanical device that looks like a human but, lacking human sensibility, can perform only automatic, mechanical operations. Robots as they are known today do not only imitate human or other living forms. True robots did mot become possible, however, until the invention of the computer in the 1940s and the miniaturization of computer parts. One of the first true robots was an experimental model designed by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute in the late 1960s. It was capable of arranging blocks into stacks through the use of a television camera as a visual sensor, processing this information in a small computer.
Computers today are equipped with microprocessors that can handle the data being fed to them by various sensors of the surrounding environment. Making use of the principle of feedback, robots can change their operations to some degree in response to changes in that environment. The commercial use of robots is spreading, with the increasing automation of factories, and they have become essential to many laboratory procedures. Japan is the most advanced nation exploring robot technology. Nowadays robots continue to expand their applications. The home-made robots () available today may be one sign of the future.
3.
I. , . . .
1. Money has a number of functions with medium of exchange being the principal function.
2. John looked through the window, his glance travelling towards the bridge.
3. The work being finished, the two girls went into the shop.
4. Just now, with the harvest coming on, everything looks its richest.
5. We began to talk, but my attention distracted by my surroundings, I took small notice of him.
II. , . .
1. I insist on your making the boy behave himself.
2. What is the real reason for his behaving in such a strange way?
3. Thank you for your letting me know about this fact.
4. We are tired of your complaining.
5. The child was afraid of his friend, being punished instead of him.
III. , . . .
1. For me to hear him was disturbing.
2. He had said enough for me to be alarmed.
3. She believed him to have left for San Francisco.
4. The practice has been found to require new capital investments.
5. Id love you to come with me too.
IV. . , .
1. If it hadnt been so cold yesterday we might have gone to the skating-rink.
2. If he could ski he wouldnt have stayed in town when we went to the woods.
3. I could have lended you money, yesterday if you had asked me for it.
4. If I were you, I would have told him the truth long ago.
5. Unless entirely reliable, information cannot make a basis for sound decisions.
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V. .
PERSONAL COMPUTERS
Personal computers are also called microcomputers or home computer. The most compact are called laptops. They are portable and work on built-in batteries.
Personal computers are designed for use at homes, schools, and offices. At home they can be used for home management (balancing the family finances, for example) and for playing computer games, watching films or listening to music. Schoolchildren can use computers for doing their homework and many schools now have computers for independent learning and computer-literacy studies. In the office personal computers may be used for word processing, bookkeeping, storage and handling of necessary information.
Personal computers were made possible by two technical innovations in the field of microelectronics: the integrated circuit, or I, which was developed in 1959 and the microprocessor that first appeared in 1971. The I permitted the miniaturization of computer-memory circuits, and the microprocessor reduced the size of a computer's CPU to the size of a single silicon chip.
Because a CPU calculates, performs logical operations, contains operating instructions, and manages data flows, a complete microcomputer as a separate system was designed and developed in 1974.
In 1981, IBM Company offered its own microcomputer model, the IBM PC that became a necessary tool for almost every business. The PC's use of a 16-bit microprocessor initiated the development of faster and more powerful personal computers, and its use of an operating system that was available to all other computer makers led to a standardisation of the industry.
In the mid-1980s, a number of other developments were especially important for the growth of personal computers. One of these was the introduction of a powerful 32-bit CPU capable of running advanced operating systems at high speeds.
New voice-controlled systems are now available, and users are able to use the words and syntax of spoken language to operate their personal computers.
4.
I. , . . .
1. In the next 25 years or so the average age in the USA increasing, problems of the aged rather
than young people will be of importance.
2. Mabel hurried out of the car and walked away, tears streaming down her face.
3. Ice having been broken, the two former rivals grew still more affectionate.
4. The next day I observed you, myself unseen for half an hour.
5. She went on reading, her eyes fixed on the pages of the book.
II. , . .
1. We rely on your keeping your engagements.
2. What is the reason for your being so upset?
3. Everything depends on the contract being cancelled in time.
4. Nobody is interested in his concealing these facts.
5. I disapprove of your missing lectures.
III. , . . .
1. I dont think I should care for it to be known.
2. No one has ever heard her cry.
3. I always liked him to sing.
4. This company proved to contribute a lot to the pension fund.
5. I hated him to be sent away.
IV. . , .
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1. We could go to the skating-rink if it were not so cold.
2. If I were you, I would ring him up myself.
3. If you gave me the article tomorrow, I would give it back to you on Saturday.
4. But for the rain, the children would have slept in the open air.
5. If changed market factors result in demand changes.
V. .
THE FUTURE OF THE ENGINEERING PROFESSION
Among various recent trends in the engineering profession computerization is the most widespread. The trend in modern engineering offices is also towards computerization. Computers are increasingly used for solving complex problems as well as for handling, storing, and generating the enormous volume of data modern engineers must work with.
Scientific methods of engineering are applied in several fields not connected directly to manufacture and construction. Modern engineering is characterized by the broad application of what is known as systems engineering principles.
Engineers in industry work not only with machines but also with people, to determine, for example, how machines can be operated most efficiently by workers. A small change in the location of the controls of a machine or of its position with relation to other machines or equipment, or a change in the muscular movements of the operator, often results in greatly increased production. This type of engineering work is called time-study engineering.
A related field of engineering, human-factors engineering, also known as ergonomics, received wide attention in the late 1970s and 1980s when the safety of nuclear reactors was questioned following serious accidents that were caused by operator errors, design failures, and malfunctioning equipment.
Human-factors engineering seeks to establish criteria for the efficient, human-centered design of, among other things, the large, complicated control panels that monitor and govern nuclear reactor operations.
5.
I. , . . .
1. With a financial panic everyone wanting his money at the same time, the bank is unable to pay.
2. We were both standing, she admiring her fan of blotting paper, I staring at her.
3. Andrew went into the house, his heart beating fast.
4. She was smoking now, her eyes narrowed thought fully.
5. It is unhealthy to sleep with the windows shut.
II. , . .
1. He was looking forward to her going away.
2. He insisted on our repeating the experiment.
3. Everybody was surprised at this question being solved so quickly.
4. They dont remember the manager having signed these bills.
5. We thanked them for their giving us an opportunity to exchange opinions.
III. , . . .
1. Im so glad for you to have come at last.
2. I paused a moment and watched the tram-car stop.
3. I dont want him to be punished.
4. Progressive taxation seems to be the most wide-spread.
5. He reported the boat to have been seen not far away.
IV. . , .
1. But for your help, I wouldnt have been able to finish the work yesterday.
2. If he trained more he would succeed in setting a record.
3. We could do it today, if you did not refuse to help us.
4. Much information can be obtained from bookkeeping records if they are kept well.
5. But for the importance of this matter, I would have stayed at home.
V. .
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
A computer to complete a job requires more than just the actual equipment or hardware we see and touch. It requires Software- programs for directing the operation of a computer or electronic data.
Programs usually fall in one of two categories: system software and applications software.
System softwarecontrols standard internal computer activities. An operating system, for example, is a collection of system programs that aid in the operation of a computer regardless of the application software being used. When a computer is first turned on, one of the systems programs is booted or loaded into the computers memory. This software contains information about memory capacity, the model of the processor, the disk drives to be used, and more. Once the system software is loaded, the applications software can be brought in.
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System programs are designed for the specific pieces of hardware. These programs are called drivers and coordinate peripheral hardware and computer activities. User needs to install a specific driver in order to activate a peripheral device. For example, if you intend to buy a printer or a scanner you need to worry in advance about the driver program which, though, commonly goes along with your device. By installing the driver you teach your mainboard to understand the newly attached part.
Applications software satisfies your specific need. The developers of application software rely mostly on marketing research strategies trying to do their best to attract more users (buyers) to their software. As the productivity of the hardware has increased greatly in recent years, the programmers nowadays tend to include as much as possible in one program to make software interface look more attractive to the user. These class of programs is the most numerous and perspective from the marketing point of view.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
When computers were first introduced in the 1940's and 50's, every program written had to provide instructions that told the computer how to use devices such as the printer, how to store information on a disk, as well as how to perform several other tasks not necessarily related to the program. The additional program instructions for working with hardware devices were very complex, and time-consuming. Programmers soon realized it would be smarter to develop one program that could control the computer's hardware, which others programs could have used when they needed it. With that, the first operating system was born.
Today, operating systems control and manage the use of hardware devices such as the printer or mouse. They also provide disk management by letting you store information in files. The operating system also lets you run programs such as the basic word processor. Lastly, the operating system provides several of its own commands that help you to use the computer.
DOS is the most commonly used PC operating system. DOS is an abbreviation for disk operating system. DOS was developed by a company named Microsoft. MS-DOS is an abbreviation for Microsoft DOS. When IBM first released the IBM PC in 1981, IBM licensed DOS from Microsoft for use on the PC and called it PC-DOS. From the users perspective, PC-DOS and MS-DOS are the same, each providing the same capabilities and commands.
The version of DOS release in 1981 was 1.0. Over the past decade, DOS has undergone several changes. Each time the DOS developers release a new version, they increase the version number.
Windows NT (new technology) is an operating system developed by Microsoft. NT is an enhanced version of the popular Microsoft Windows 3.0, 3.1 programmes. NT requires a 386 processor or greater and 8 Mb of RAM. For the best NT performance, you have to use a 486 processor with about 16 Mb or higher. Unlike the Windows, which runs on top of DOS, Windows NT is an operating system itself. However, NT is DOS compatible. The advantage of using NT over Windows is that NT makes better use of the PC's memory management capabilities.
OS/2 is a PC operating system created by IBM. Like NT, OS/2 is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse. Also like NT, OS/2 performs best when you are using a powerful system. Many IBM-based PCs are shipped with OS/2 preinstalled.
UNIX is; a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to access the system. Traditionally, UNIX run on a larger mini computer to which users accessed the systems using terminals and not PC's. UNIX allowed each user to simultaneously run the programs they desired. Unlike NT and OS/2, UNIX is not DOS compatible. Most users would not purchase UNIX for their own use.
Windows 95 & 98 (Windows 2000) are the most popular user-oriented operating systems with a friendly interface and multitasking capabilities. The usage of Windows 95 and its enhanced version Windows 98 is so simple that even little kids learn how to use it very quickly. Windows 95 and 98 are DOS compatible, so all programs written for DOS may work under the new operating system.
Windows 95 requires 486 processor with 16 megabytes of RAM or Pentium 75-90 with 40 megabytes of free hard disk space.
HISTORY OF ROBOTICS
The concept of robots dates back to ancient times, when some myths told of mechanical beings brought to life. Such automata also appeared in the clockwork figures of medieval churches, and in the 18th century some clockmaker s gained fame for the clever mechanical figures that they constructed. Today the term automaton is usually applied to these handcrafted, mechanical (rather than electromechanical) devices that imitate the motions of living creatures. Some of the robots used in advertising and entertainment are actually automata, even with the addition of remote radio control.
The term robot itself is derived from the Czech word robota, meaning compulsory labour. It was first used by the Czech novelist and playwright Karel Chapek, to describe a mechanical device that looks like a human but, lacking human sensibility, can perform only automatic, mechanical operations. Robots as they are known today do not only imitate human or other living forms. True robots did mot become possible, however, until the invention of the computer in the 1940s and the miniaturization of computer parts. One of the first true robots was an experimental model designed by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute in the late 1960s. It was capable of arranging blocks into stacks through the use of a television camera as a visual sensor, processing this information in a small computer.
Computers today are equipped with microprocessors that can handle the data being fed to them by various sensors of the surrounding environment. Making use of the principle of feedback, robots can change their operations to some degree in response to changes in that environment. The commercial use of robots is spreading, with the increasing automation of factories, and they have become essential to many laboratory procedures. Japan is the most advanced nation exploring robot technology. Nowadays robots continue to expand their applications. The home-made robots () available today may be one sign of the future.
