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1
1. :
Types of cars The very first freight cars are known to have been used in coal mines in England. They were open-top wagons which had wooden wheels and were pulled by horses along wooden rails. They were followed by platform cars. Later, covered cars came into existence. As time went on and railways had to carry more and more freight, bigger and better cars were invented for hauling different kinds of goods. Today, the railways have several classes of freight cars. The box car is considered to be the most common type of covered cars. It is a general-purpose car invented to carry all kinds of ordinary goods which must be protected from the weather. A special type of box car is a refrigerator-car used for hauling food products. The walls, floor and roof of this wagon are air and waterproof to protect goods from the heat of the outside air.
Coal, ore, gravel and other similar goods are known to be conveyed in open-top cars, principal types of these being the gondola and hopper car. Both types are designed for mechanized loading and unloading and therefore built especially strong and durable. The simplest type of car is the flat car. Being usually employed for transportation rails, beams, timber and heavy machines, they if fitted with special devices can also carry containers. The early passenger cars were copied after stage-coaches and were very small and uncomfortable. In England, the carriages for the first class passengers had three compartments with soft seats and doors at either side. There was a high seat at the back for the guard, the baggage being carried on the roof. The second class carriages also were bad and primitive. As to the third class passengers, they had to ride in uncovered wagons having no seats at all. The early trains had neither lightning nor heating. We know the passenger rolling stock of today to comprise several types of cars. There exist sleeping and dining cars coaches for day and night service etc. The modern rolling stock is built with two types of inside arrangement. One is the compartment type with a side corridor, and the other is the open vehicle with a central passage. Many innovations have been introduced in car construction since the early days. Modern carriages are made of lightweight steel, aluminum and plastics. The application of these materials has resulted in considerable reduction of the rolling stock weight and, in addition, has increased the resistance of cars to corrosion.
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:
- Where were the very first freight cars used?
- What is the common type of covered cars?
- What is the simplest type of car?
- What is a special type of box car?
2. : to prevent goods from spoiling, to carry vegetables from the South, breakage, cars employed by railways, commodities packed by the factory, firmly fastened bulkheads, long-distance trains, sleeping cars, improvement, operation, to modernize as many cars as possible.
2
1. :
Box cars, tank cars and refrigerators.
The boxcars constitute another large class of freight wagons. Boxcars are primarily employed to transport valuable commodities and products requiring protection from weather or breakage. There are special boxcars used by different railroads to carry automobiles and their parts. These cars are provided with a special device used to hold motor cars securely in place for safe transportation. Some cars can accommodate a double row of automobiles, one set above the other, thus doubling the capacity of the wagon. As a rule, boxcars are used to carry goods in packaged form. Sometimes movable bulkheads are used to hold bags, boxes, barrels of different sizes and shapes in place. But sometimes shipments destined for different places are loaded in the same car. By using bulkheads firmly fastened to side walls it is possible to divide the wagon into compartments so that freight for a single station can be packed in a single compartment. The refrigerator car is also considered to be a special car used for transporting meat, fruit, vegetables, fish etc., which must be kept cold to prevent them from spoiling. The walls, floor and roof of these cars are to be water-proof, air-tight and they are to be insulated. It is the refrigerator car which makes it possible for people living in the most distant places to have fresh fruits and vegetables all the year round. Some freight is to be carried in liquid or semi-liquid form. The transportation of such freight requires a large number of specialized cars, called tank cars. The products carried in these cars include different oils, acids, compressed gases, wine milk, etc. Special linings are used to prevent tank damage from contamination of products, some tanks being made of aluminum, others being lined with rubber, lass, enamel or stainless steel.
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:
- With what aim are special boxcars used?
- With what device are these cars provided?
- What can you say about refrigerator?
- What cars are used to carry some freight in liquid and semi-liquid form?
2. :
bulk materials, firmly fastened bulkheads, specially designed cars, carefully packed goods, greatly improved car designs, contamination of products, to prevent tank from damage, modern passenger cars, sleeping cars, baggage, long-distance trains, the future of transport.
3
1. :
Road transport. Traffic rules.
Every year several thousand people are killed on the roads, others are injured.
Traffic regulations are international nowadays. But special regulations valid for one country only are also to be taken into consideration. Traffic in Russia is on the right-hand side of streets and roads with traffic way wide enough for several cars moving abreast in one direction. It is forbidden to drive in the left-hand lane if the right -hand lane is free. In Great Britain traffic keeps to the left. Motorcars, motor vans, buses and cyclists must all keep to the left side of the road. In most other countries traffic keeps to the right. Accidents are often caused by carelessness. There are rules that help to make the roads safe, but people do not always obey the rules. They are careless. If everybody obeys the rules, the road will be much safer. Before crossing the road, stop and look both ways. Look right, look left, look right again. Then, if you are sure that the road is clear, that there is nothing coming, it is safe to cross the road.
To brake a moving car it is necessary to use only foot brakes provided with a hydraulic drive for all four wheels. The braking path depends on the car speed and condition of the road surface. On the wet road and at hight speeds the car should be braked in time and smoothly, with the clutch engaged. The parking brake (hand brake) serves to hold the car in place. It should be used when the car is stopped by means of a foot brake on a level road or on a steep grade. Don't forget that the parking brake acts as the foot brake. Moreover, when it is used on a moving car side-slipping might occur, especially on a wet road as the parking brake does not act directly on the wheels.
:
1) Are traffic rules identical in all the countries?
2) What side does the traffic keep to in Russia?
3) What countries have left-hand traffic?
4) What is the main reason of many accidents on the roads?
2. :
to injure, abreast, carelessness, rule, sign, braking path, to depend on, condition, lane, to forbid, to take into consideration, valid, rear, side-slipping, to occur, parking brake, to stop a moving car, a two-set cab, speed limit, emergency brake application, to make the roads safe
4
1. :
" Protection of the environment."
Environmental pollution is a term that refers to all the ways by which people pollute their surroundings. People dirty the air with gases and smoke, poison the water with chemicals and other substances, and damage the soil with too many fertilizers and pesticides. Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems facing humanity today. It causes global warming, destruction of the ozone layer, and other disastrous processes. Badly polluted air can cause illness, and even death. Polluted water kills fish and other marine life. Pollution of soil reduces the amount of land available for growing crops. Environmental pollution also brings ugliness to our naturally beautiful world. The pollution problem is as complicated as it is serious. It is complicated because much pollution is caused by things that benefit people. Exhaust from cars causes air pollution, but the car provides transportation for millions of people. Factories discharge much of the material that pollutes air and water, but factories provide jobs for people and produce goods that people need. Too many fertilizers or pesticides can ruin soil, but they are important aids for the growing of crops. Thus, to end or greatly reduce pollution immediately, people would have to stop using many things that benefit them. But pollution can be gradually reduced. Scientists and engineers should work hard to find the ways to lessen the amount of pollution. Governments should enforce laws that require enterprises or individuals to stop or to reduce certain polluting activities. Radiation is an invisible pollutant that can be highly dangerous. Nuclear radiation comes from radioactive substances, including waste from nuclear weapons testing and from nuclear power plants. Small amounts of electromagnetic radiation are produced by a variety of electronic devices including computers, lasers, microwave ovens, TV sets, and X-ray machines. International agreements ban most testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. However, the amount of radioactive waste is constantly increasing. Scientists are permanently studying the ways to eliminate these wastes safely.
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- What is the main problem of the environment?
- What do people dirty the air with?
- What do people poison the water?
- What do people damage the soil with?
2. :
ecological problems, to reduce air pollution, to throw old batteries in the trash, toxic chemicals, a recycling centre, litter, to pick up litter, a great threat to the environment, the danger for the life and health of the man, to pollute the air, the water and the land.
5
1. :
Who discovered electricity?
The story of the discovery of electricity is connected with the name of Thales, the Greek philosopher. The story goes that one day Thales rubbed a piece of amber against his sleeve and found to his great surprise that it attracted small bits of dried leaves. After further experimenting he concluded that this attractive force was a property that amber alone possessed. He called this characteristic electricity because the Greek word for amber was electron. Thales' great discovery remained a curiosity for more than two thousand years. Then many other substances were found to have this curious property of electricity too. Naturally the people of the past had no idea of what electricity was. They thought of it asrays or stream that passed from the rubbed material. There were scientists who thought electricity to be a sort of fluid that flowed through wires as water flows through pipes. Later many of them found out that electricity was made of tiny particles of some kind. In this way they tried to separate electricity into individual particles. There were some attempts to weigh a single particle of electricity and calculate its electric charge. This was one of the most delicate weighing jobs ever done by a man, for a single electric particle weighs only about half a millionth of a millionth of a millionth of a millionth of a millionth of a pound. To make up a pound, it would take more of those particles than there are drops of water in the Atlantic Ocean. Now we know these electric particles to be electrons.
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When a large number of electrons break away from their atoms and move through the wire, we describe this action by saying that electricity is flowing through the wire and the electrical fluid that scientists of the past talked about is nothing else than electrons flowing along a wire. A lot of scientists worked in the field of electricity doing their best to make the life of people good and happy.
:
- What did Thales, the Greek philosopher, notice once?
- What did Thales call that property of amber?
- What is the Greek word for amber?
- What did people think of electricity?
2 : to rub, amber, to attract, bit, attempt, to remain, the attractive force, a property, to flow through the wire, a single particle of electricity, tiny, curious, to weigh.
6
1. :
"Moscow Metro."
In 1931 it was decided to start preparations for the building of the Metro in Moscow. In the spring of 1932 the project drawn up by Soviet engineers and architects was endorsed. Thousands of young specialists and mine workers, construction workers from the Donbas and from Moscow region, from the Urals, and Dneprostroi went underground into Metro shafts and tunnels. In a short time (it was called a record time by the world press) the first line was constructed. More than eleven kilometers of track connected the Sokolniki district with the Gorky Park district. There were ten stations on this line. The construction work was done in difficult geological conditions, of a kind never encountered by European or American Metro builders. So this day saw the first section of a double track line 8 miles long put into operation. The Metro was opened on May 15,1935. Since then building work on the Metro has not stopped for a single day. Even at the time when the fascist hordes were near Moscow, the Metro builders continued their work. After the war the scale of construction increased considerably. The construction of the belt line was completed and it connected all the radial routes. The new routes and stations began appearing in new housing districts. Some of the lines go overland, across new bridges and aqueducts. Moscow's rapidly increasing population, the growth of its industrial enterprises and cultural institutions required the capital to have efficient and convenient means for accommodating passenger traffic. The people of our country wanted the Metro to be the best in the world. There are many stations in the Metro; their surface buildings and underground halls are spacious, well ventilated and well lit. They differ widely in architectural design and are decorated with marble, bronze, aluminum and glass. The present Metro coaches are much better than the early ones. They are considerably lighter in weight, and the seats are soft. Muscovites and the visitors to the city do not have to wait long for trains, for the interval between them is always short. Clever machines have appeared in the Metro recently. An experimental automatic driver conducts trains according to the time-table and stops precisely as required. The Moscow Metro is developing rapidly. The capital is growing, and Metro lines are being constructed every year.
:
1) When was it decided to start the building of Moscow Metro?
2) By whom was the Moscow Metro built?
3) When was the Moscow Metro opened?
4) Why is this metro so important for our capital?
2 :
to develop rapidly, lines of the Moscow Metro, an automatic driver, according to the time-table, to be considerably in weight, a double-track line, mine workers, passenger traffic, to be well ventilated and lit, metro builders, the growth of enterprises, to be decorated with marble.
7
1 .
Thermal electrical plants.
Hydroelectric stations deliver power from great rivers, but still about 80 per cent of the required electric power is produced in thermal electrical plants. These plants burn coal, gas, peat or shale to make steam.To understand how the energy of fuel is converted into electrical energy let us discuss the heat process and begin with the fuel.
Gas is delivered through gas pipelines. The coal (peat, shale) arrives in trains, and conveyors or cranes unload it for storage and bring it to the furnace. It is more effective to burn coal in the form of powder, therefore it is first crushed, pulverized and blown into furnaces. To attain complete combustion of the powder a large volume of air is needed, delivered by forced air fans, exhauster fans and smoke stacks. The steam boilers or steam generators supply the huge amount of high-pressure, high-temperature steam required to drive the high-power turbine-generators.
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The kinetic energy of its steam acts against the blades of the turbine and rotates its shaft joined to the generators shaft.A centralized control desk with panels and many instruments and automatic control devices supervises and monitors the plant, with only a few operators.
:
- Where are hydroelectric stations located?
- What does the kinetic energy of the steam do with the blades of the turbine?
- What does a centralized control desk to?
- Why are there only a few operators at such electrical plants?
2. :
to require, to convert, fuel, to deliver through pipelines, to supply, the generator shaft, a centralized control desk,to drive the high-power turbine generators, to monitor, to feed, fans, combustion, power input, raw materials, voltage transformer, high-pressure.
8
1. .
Freight cars
Nearly all of us known more about passenger train cars and passenger trains that we know about freight train cars and freight trains, since we have all ridden on passenger trains while a great many of us have never had anything to do with shipping goods on freight cars. The cars on a freight train are known to be seldom alike, they are usually of many types and sizes, special kinds of freight requiring special kinds of cars. But nowadays one can see the so-called bulk trains, that is, trains consisting of wagons of one type only for regular transporting large quantities of goods from one place to another. All world railways have several classes of commonly used cars and there are usually several kinds of cars in each class.
One of the most widely used cars is the cars is the car for transporting coal from mines. This car is called an open-top car, for it has no roof. There are two types of open-top cars, the hopper and gondola car, the latter having a flat floor or bottom. The former, i.e. the hopper car, has a floor sloping downward from each end and in some cars from the sides also. The amount of freight to be carried depends upon the size of the floor space and the height of the sides and ends of the car to be used. Therefore we distinguish low-sided and high-sided wagons as well as low capacity or high-capacity ones. Both hoppers and gondolas are used to carry stone, gravel, crushed rock and other bulky materials which may be exposed to weather.
A type of car that is not very old but has become very popular is the covered hopper car. It looks like a conventional hopper but it is roofed. To load or fill the car you use water-tight hatches in its roof and you empty or unload it through its hopper bottom. It is much cheaper to carry bulky materials that cannot be exposed to weather such as cement, dry powdered chemicals, etc., in these cars than to place them in bags and ship the bags in special cars.
:
- For what are special types of cars required?
- What is the most widely used type of freight cars?
- For what are hoppers and gondolas used?
- What type of cars has become very popular?
2. :
wheelbase, brakes, emergency, partition, for passing with safety, by making the trucks very strong, the absence of signaling, the danger of travelling, the car lighting and heating systems, the most uncomfortable car seats, the fastest way of transportation.
9
1
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"Requirements to modern passenger cars"
The passenger is supposed to expect safety, speed and comfort from the railway. Therefore safety has always remained the first essential, though it has already reached a very high level compared to the other modes of transportation. In the field of speed, considerable progress is considered to have been made by wide use of electric and diesel traction both on main and suburban lines. It is possible now to increase maximum speeds to 250 km/h. Medium speed of about 170 km/h is to become normal in Europe. It is not so easy to define the concept of comfort. During the journey it is necessary to ensure safety, relaxation and facilitate such activities as reading, conversation or taking refreshments. Therefore, the seat is to be one of the fundamental comfort factors both from physiological and psychological points of view. In fact, it must enable passengers of different weight, height and stoutness to relax, doze, sleep and write, eat or drink, all during the journey which may last several hours and even days. First of all, the passengers is expected to pay attention to the external appearance of the rolling stock. The latter should look as attractive as possible. Then, the passenger should be able to board the train without difficulty which is possible at stations with high platforms. One must be able to find his seat quickly, to get rid of his luggage and to be able to enjoy the inside temperature in contrast with that on the platform which can sometimes be either very high or very low. Besides that good running qualities must also give a feeling of safety and a low noise is very important as well. Some railways have developed designs of rocket -looking locomotives and cars of bright colours and their tourist cars are often double-deckers, often called" bi-level" cars.
:
1) What do passengers expect from the railway?
2) What maximum speed is increased by wide use of electric and diesel traction?
3) What requirements must meet seats for passengers?
4) Can you tell about the requirements to comfort factors of passenger cars?
2. :
wheelbase, brakes, emergency, partition, for passing with safety, by making the trucks very strong, the absence of signaling, the danger of travelling, the car lighting and heating systems, the most uncomfortable car seats, the fastest way of transportation.
10
1
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Electric shock. Safety Electric System.
The strength of current depends on both the voltage and on the resistance in a circuit. A current of 50 ma id a dangerous for a man, it may result in an electric shock. One gets an electric shock in case one touches live conductors when the power is on. And a current of 100 ma and higher is lethal. Thus, before working on a circuit, deenergize it and work on it with the power off.
Earthing system serves to protect attending personnel from electric shocks when voltage appears on parts that are normally dead. The risk of an electric shock decreases with decreasing voltage. In wet and hot atmosphere the risk of electric shock increases. Safe voltage for circuits used in dry atmosphere is under 36 V. When the power is on contracts with live conductors are dangerous for life. When a live conductor is touched with both hands the resistance of the conductor is from 10,000 to 50,000 ohms. When a live conductor is touched with one hand the resistance is much higher.The higher is the body resistance, the smaller is the current that flows through the body. Take it into consideration and work with one hand if the power is on! Or work on the circuit with the power off!
Thus measures are taken to protect attending personnel from contacts with live parts of installations under voltage.
The danger of electric shock disappears provided the metal parts of installations under voltage are connected with ground by means of safety earthing. Connecting to ground is made by means of measuring devices. The faulty parts should be detected,
eliminated, and replaced by new ones.
:
- What does the strength of current depend on?
- What does electric shock result from?
- What does an earthing system serve for?
- In what case does the risk of electric shock decrease?
2. :
protection from an electric shock, dangerous,safe, earthing system, voltage, the strength of current, overhead and underground lines,conductors, transmission lines, to transmit by power networks, power consumption.
11
1. .
"Michael Faraday."
Michael Faraday,one of the greatest men of science, had little chance to get an application. His father was a blacksmith, and Faraday was born to work with his hands too. When thirteenth years of age, he went as apperentice to learn bookbinding. He read many of the books he had to bind. Once when binding an encyclopedia he ran across an article on electricity. It struck his imagination and aroused his interest.
With the little money he could save, he bought a cheap and simple apparatus and set to make experiments. He attended the lectures of Hamphry Davy, an outstanding scientist and the most popular lecturer in London at that time. It was Davy who helped Faraday to become assistant at the laboratory of the Royal Institute and to get a profound knowledge of the subject. While still an assistant, he helped Davy to create a safety lamp for miners. He learned chemistry, he was working on the problem of turning gases into liquids. An important discovery of Faraday was that of benzol which he separated from condensed oil gas, and which since then found world-wide application. For several years he is known to have been working at the problem of a perfect optical glass and to have made a glass that greatly improved the telescope.
Yet the problem of electricity and magnetism interested him above all. All the scientific world had known by that time if a current is run through a copper wire wound around a piece of iron, the iron becomes a magnet. If electricity magnetizes, why won't magnetism electrify? That was the question Faraday asked himself over and over. For a long time he tried different experiments to solve the problem. At last in 1831 he made his major discovery in the field of electricity the electromagnetic induction.
Among a number of other discoveries he is also known to have measured electric current for the first time, and to have made several important observations on the conductivity of different materials.
Faraday was one of those great men who made possible the age of electricity in which we live, all the marvels it brings us and all those it may bring to the future generations.
:
- Who was M. Faraday?
- What struck his imagination while working as a binder?
- What was his first important discovery?
- When did Faraday discover the electromagnetic induction?
2 :
to strike, conductivity, to bind, application, to improve, education, assistant at the laboratory, the problem of electricity and magnetism, to measure, to turn gases into liquids, a perfect optical glass, all scientific world, to run through a copper wire,to enjoy world-wide popularity.
2 .
3 8- .
1. Present Simple Tense.
- He (to know) this engineer. My friends (to study) at a railway college.
- She (to play) chess very well. Our students (to learn) new words every lesson.
- My friend (to work) in the locomotive depot. The students (to come) to the college 4 times a year.
- We (to read) many books. Our boss (to like) to come to the Ministry.
- The movement of a train (to start) at the terminal. We often (to go) to the South by train.
- The conductor (to clean) the compartment after traveling. The trains usually (to arrive) according to schedule.
- Railways (to use) steel rails. The Russia express (to consist) of all-metal cars.
- Railways often (to hold) international exhibitions. Russia (to carry) a great amount of the world's rail traffic.
- Railways (to pay) particular attention to high-speed running. The engineer often (to stay) in the office in the evening.
- He (to design) new high-speed trains.
- They often (to go) to the meeting.
