Important general characteristics of GRP elements compared to other building materials and elements are as follows:
GRP has a low weight as well as a high strength to weight ratio.
GRP has moderately good tensile, compressive and shear strength; however, strength is dependent on temperature and at high temperature even moderate stresses can cause failure with time. As the properties of GRP become worse with time, high factors of safety are necessary for long-term loads.
The polyester resin which is used in the production of GRP hardens and cures. However the resin is brittle and needs the strength that is given to it by the glass fibres; generally structural GRP contains between 25% and 60% of glass fibre reinforcement.
GRP has a high coefficient of expansion.
GRP will creep, that is it will continue to deflect, if there is a permanent load on it. The higher temperatures the faster will be the creep. The maximum operating temperature is about 70C (160F).
GRP has a low modulus of elasticity and, because it is used in thin sections, deflection is often a critical factor in design. In order to overcome this flexibility GRP is often used in the form of double skin panels in which deflections are easy to control. The modulus of elasticity decreases with increase in temperature and time under load.
Notes:
coefficient n.
double skin panel
operating temperature
.
1. What are the advantages of glass reinforced polyester?
2. What are its disadvantages?
3. Why are the glass fibres necessary in GRP?
4. What is the maximum operating temperature of this material?
5. Why is deflection a critical factor with GRP?
6. How is GRP flexibility overcome?
7. What influences the modulus of elasticity of GRP?
:
,
.
1. :
deflect (v.), overcome (v.), dependent (adj.), decrease (v.), expansion (n.), as well as (adv.), flexibility (n.).
, . , .
2. .
| A | B permanent about reinforcement long-term general failure deflection moderate shear strength cure | A | B production harden thin brittle as follows load safety cause compared to creep |
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3. :
deflect - deflection
depend - dependent
1.12
A, B . , .
A
['kPmpqrqbql]; [q'nJld]; ['xsId]; [trxn'speqrqnsI]; ["kPnsqn'treISqn]; [rI'zIstqns]; [skrxC]; ["kPndAk'tIvItI]; ['drLbxk]; [jJld]; [Seq]; [taIp]; [meIn]; ['prPptI]
B
| tape scratch comparable propriety | yield shear acid resistance | screech transparency drawback mien | share concentration type main | conductivity property consternation annealed |
A
GLASS
Although there are hundreds of types of glass they all share almost similar properties, the main ones of them are transparency, high compressive strength, brittleness and good resistance to most corrosive agents.
Annealed Glass. The important general characteristics of glass compared to other building materials and structures are as follows:
Glass is a very durable material. It has a hardness comparable with steel, so that it is difficult to scratch, and has good resistance to almost all acids, including those sometimes present in rainwater.
Glass is an elastic material. However, unlike other elastic materials, such as steel, it cannot yield in a 'plastic' manner under tension so that scratches on the surface of the glass, cause high stress concentrations there and make the glass fail in a brittle manner.
Glass is a strong material in compression but is only able to provide its full strength in tension if it is free of scratches. Therefore the tensile strength of glass depends on the state of the surface. Glass can take much higher tensile stresses if those are caused by very short term loads. The allowable tensile stresses for such short term loads are more than twice higher than those for long term loads.
Glass has low thermal conductivity. This means that significant temperature differences can be found within any glass in general use, as is the case for plastics which also have low thermal conductivities. However, glass is a more brittle material than most plastics and these temperature differences can lead to cracking. These drawbacks may often be overcome if a thin glass or toughened glass is used.
Notes:
acid n.
brittleness n.
corrosive agent
scratch 1. n. ; 2. v. , ,
transparency n.
yield v. (); ,
.
1. What are the main properties of glass?
2. What are its general characteristics?
3. What can be said about glass durability?
4. What is the difference of glass from other elastic materials?
5. What does tensile strength of glass depend on?
6. What does low thermal conductivity of glass mean?
7. Why can temperature differences in glass lead to cracking?
8. How may it be overcome?
1. ) :
annealed glass, concentration (n.), temperature difference, toughened glass, share (v.), manner (n.), rainwater (n.), main (adj.), comparable (adj.).
|
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? ? ?
2. :
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
; ; ; ; ; ; ; , ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; .
3. , : , . .
4. . .
| approximate destroy prefer point of view contractor disadvantage glass fibre composite both quarter | flexibility dependent as well as deflect decrease overcome expansion hardness protect surround | () |
5. :
metal
wood
plastic
glass
, :
cast-in-place; toughened; expansion; composite; bar; hardness; resin; dry; welding; prefabricate; moisture; cracking; versatile; alloy; rolled section; brittle; wire; heating; elastic; fireproof; timber; durable; formwork; bond; void; harden; fibre; cure; admixture; corrosion; annealed; deflect; flexibility; reinforcement; laminated; plasticity; stiffness; prestress.
, .
1. , Perfect Active and Passive.
1. Before modern cement appeared in the nineteenth century natural cement had been used.
2. After the initial set of the concrete it has been allowed to cure in controlled conditions of temperature and humidity.
3. These forms cannot be removed until the concrete has hardened.
4. Glass fibre has been used to reinforce GRP.
5. Toughened glass has been widely used in buildings.
6. This paste has hardened and formed from the reaction of water and cement powder.
7. Loud sounds have been avoided by the use of this acoustic material.
8. Wood has decreased strength under long-term loads.
2. , do / does / did.
1. A material which does have such strength will be chosen ().
2. The amount of deformation does depend on the size and shape of the object
3. These tests do take a few minutes.
4. The U of a material does vary directly with its density.
5. Mass production techniques did make the cost of construction lower.
6. This building did require a movement joint at 50m intervals.
3. , it.
1. Glass is a very durable material. It has a hardness comparable with steel.
2. There is a unit stress below which the material will not fail. It is the endurance limit.
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3. Wood has low strength under long term loads but it has good resistance to short term loads.
4. It should be taken into account that further deformations due to creep may cause sagging.
5. It is easy to make high strength connections between steel components by welding or bolting.
6. It has been shown by the experiments that high quality of a steel joint resulted both from the strength of steel and from its ductility.
7. It is important to remember that at 480C (900F) steel keeps about two-thirds of its original stiffness and strength.
8. Prestressed concrete is particularly useful for beams. Due to it steel can be used at stresses several times larger.
4. , , .
1. Annealed glass is difficult to scratch.
2. Glass is a strong material in compression if it is free of scratches.
3. Concrete may be useful as a tie.
4. Precast concrete requires connections to tie the structure together.
5. The work has been done in time.
6. In reinforced concrete steel and concrete work together.
7. Pieces of lumber are glued together to form a glued-laminated member.
8. Only reliable glues can be used for glued-laminated members.
9. There are many building materials.
10. These drawings show how the building will look.
5. , -.
1. Various kinds of cement are available, for example, those which harden rapidly.
2. Heat capacity of concrete is less than that of wood.
3. Glass has good resistance to almost all acids, including those present in rainwater.
4. The manner glass fail in is a brittle one.
5. The allowable tensile stresses for short term loads are more than twice higher than those for long term ones.
6. Dry wood has about twice the strength and stiffness of the green one.
B
TOUGHENED GLASS
Toughened glass is about five times stronger in bending than ordinary annealed glass because the surface of the glass is prestressed in compression. No tensile stresses will take place on the surface if the stress that is applied is not greater than this prestress. In order to make toughened glass its surface, when it is at a high temperature, is rapidly cooled. This process not only produces compression on the surface but tension in the middle of the toughened glass and this accounts for the characteristic way toughened glass shatters into pieces when broken. This is a relatively safe way when a failure takes place. The greater safety of toughened glass over annealed glass is an important reason for its selection. Because toughened glass has a significant tensile strength, it is able to accept not only the applied stress due to loads but also stresses due to temperature difference. In this way it can take thermal shocks and not crack. Disadvantages of toughened glass are its loss of properties above about 300C (575F) and the fact that it may not be drilled, cut or shaped after toughening has been finished. Toughened glass has been widely used in buildings. High glass wall elevations have been constructed with the use of toughened glass. In this case the glass wall is hung from supports to avoid buckling.
Notes:
cool v. ()
safe adj.
shatter v.
.
1. How strong is toughened glass?
2. Why is it so strong?
3. How is toughened glass made?
4. What is an important reason for its selection?
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5. Why does toughened glass not crack due to temperature differences?
6. What are the disadvantages of toughened glass?
7. Where is toughened glass used in buildings?
1. :
buckling (n.), shape (v.), support (n.), hang (v.), ordinary (adj.), elevation (n.), drill (v.), selection (n.), finish (v.), fact (n).
, . , .
2. .
| A | B accept significant strong crack way break compression prestress apply bending | A , | B time toughened avoid case cut disadvantage loss rapidly take place support |
3. :
compare - compared to - comparable
select - selection
C
FABRIC
Fabric structures have been in use for a very long time as temporary forms of construction. The important characteristics of fabric structures are their flexibility in bending, although the forces that are developed in supports and foundations by fabric structures can be very large. Fabrics require different methods of design compared to the large majority of building structures which are rigid and cannot change shape when the loads change.
Fabrics may be made of mineral fibres, such as glass, organic fibres such as cotton, metal fibres such as stainless steel, or synthetic fibres. A film or coating is usually applied to a fabric so as to improve its properties. A mesh may be used as reinforcement to plastic film. In the latter case the mesh is usually sandwiched between two layers of film and is then known as a reinforced film. Important general characteristics of fabrics and fabric structures compared to other building materials and structures are as follows:
Fabric has moderate to high tensile strength but no effective compressive strength. The strength of the fabric depends mainly on the fibre which is used.
Fabric has a low or zero shear modulus, that is, the material can be made that shears with little or no effort. A fabric which does possess shear stiffness is less tolerant of errors in the design of a structure that is made from it and less easily adapts its shape to changes in load.
Fabric has low weight and a very high strength to weight ratio.
Fabric which is made from synthetic materials loses strength when it is loaded over a period of time. An increase in temperature also causes a loss of strength. A problem with some fabrics, especially fabrics that are made from synthetic fibres, is creep, that is, the constant increase in length of the fabric, under a constant load. Temperature and humidity can increase the creep of some materials.
Fabrics are generally elastic materials. At high load they show some plasticity, that is, they have a permanent extension even after the load is removed. The plasticity is influenced by the rate of loading.
Fabrics can be made reasonably durable, that is reasonably resistant to tears. Tears can exist in a fabric under stress for a long period of time.
Fabric structures may be erected in low temperature conditions. They may also be designed for very quick erection.
The dimensional stability of a coated fabric, that is, the degree to which it changes its dimensions over time and under different conditions depends mainly on the fibre. On the other hand the light transmission, fire resistance, permeability, weathering and durability will depend mainly on the coating in use.
High temperatures decrease the strength and increase the stretch of fabric. On the other hand, low temperatures decrease stretch of the fabric but make it easier for tears to develop. The qualities of most fabrics will not become worse to any significant extent in the range of temperatures from at least - 40C (- 40F) to + 60C (+ 140F).
Notes:
cotton n.
dimensional stability
film n.
majority n.
mineral fibre
organic fibre
shear modulus
shear stiffness
synthetic adj.
tear n. ,
zero adj.
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.
1. How have fabric structures been used?
2. What are the important characteristics of fabric structures?
3. Why do fabric structures differ () from most of the other building structures?
4. What are fabrics made of?
5. Why is coating applied to fabric?
6. How is fabric reinforced?
7. What is the strength of fabrics?
8. What are the problems of fabrics made from synthetic materials?
9. What does plasticity of fabric mean?
10. What does dimensional stability of a coated fabric mean?
11. How do high temperatures influence fabric?
12. How do low temperatures influence it?
, . .
| effort coat mainly weathering especially plastic transmission exist load foundation sandwich resistant fabric latter on the other hand stretch | B ( ) ( ) | stainless steel loading erect possess temporary mesh adapt support coating at least decrease constant moderate rigid shear humidity | B |
.
. .
J
I ,
e ,
- ,
- , ,
P - ,
² -
V
H
- , ,
W ,
q , ,
ÂÁ -
q½ -
aÁ -
a½ -
¸Á -
Áq -
eq -
½q -
à -
Ä
Å -
Æ , , , . .
Ç -
È -
¾ - ( ) ,
¹ - ( )
É -
Ê -
Ë , ,
Ì ~ ~ ~ ~
Í ~ ~ ~ ~
Î ~ ~ ~ ~
Ï , , ( )
¿ -
º -
À -
-
Ð -
Ñ -
¼ -
Ò
Ó
absorb [q'bsLb] v. , , 1.4A
abut ment [q'bAtmqnt] n. , ; , ; 1.8C
acoustic [q'kHstÁk] adj. 1.4A
adapt [q'Ìxpt] v. 1.12C
admixture [qd'mIksCq] n. , 1.5A
aerated concrete ['ereItÁÌ] 1.5A
aggregate ['xgrÁgÁt] n. 1.1A
alloy ['xlOÁ] n. 1.1A
aluminium ["xlq'mInIqm] n. 1.9A
anchor ['xNkq] v. , , 1.8C
angle ['xNgql] n. ; , 1.4C
annealed glass [q'nJld] 1.12A
application ["xplÁ'keÁSqn] n. (); 1.3B
architect ['RkÁtekt] n. 1.1B
axial ['xksIql] adj. , 1.3A
axis ['xksÁs] n. 1.4C
balance ['bxlqns] v. ; 1.4C
band [bxnd] n. 1. 2. 3., , 4., 1.2A
bar [bR] n. 1. , , pl ; 2. , () 1.1A
base [beÁs] v. , 1.4B
beam [bJm] n. , , ; , , 1.3A
bending ['bendÁN] n. , , 1.8C
binder ['baÁndq] n. , 1.1A
block [blPk] n. , ; (); 1.1B
bolt [bqVlt] n. 1.10A
bolt v. 1.9B
bond [bPnd] n. , , ; () 1.5B
brick [brIk] n. 1.1A
brittle ['brÁtl] adj. 1.9A
buckling ['bAklÁN] n. , 1.12B
build [bÁld] v. , , 1.1B
builder n. 1. , ; 2. 1.1A
building n. 1. , ; 2. , 1.1A
C (degree Celsius) ['selsIqs] [= Centigrade ] 1.7A
calculate ['kxlkjVleÁt] v. , , 1.1A
carbon ['kRbn] n. , 1.1A
cast ['kRst] v. , 1.8B
casting n. , () , 1.5A
cast - in - place ['kRstIn'pleIs] adj. , 1.5A
ceiling ['sJlÁN] n. 1.3A
cement [sI'ment] n. 1.1A
characteristic ["kxrÁktq'rÁstÁk] n. , , ; 1.1B
chemical ['kemIkql] adj. 1.4B
clay [kleÁ] n. 1.1A
coat [kqVt] v. , ; 1.12C
coating n. , , 1.12C
column ['kPlqm] n. , 1.1A
component [kqm'pqVnqnt] n. ; (); , 1.4C
composite ['kPmpqzIt] n. , 1.11A
composition ["kPmpq'zÁSqn] n. ; , 1.5A
compress [kqm'pres] v. 1.2A
compression [kqm'preSqn] n. 1.1A
compressive [kqm'presIv] strength , 1.2A
compressive stress , 1.5B
concentration ["kPnsqn'treISqn] n. 1.12A
concrete ['kPNkrJt] n. , 1.1A
conduction [kqn'dAkSqn] n. (, ) 1.4A
connection [kq'nekSqn] n. , ; , 1.8B
construct [kqn'strAkt] v. , , ; , 1.4C
construction [kqn'strAkSqn] n. 1. , , 2. , , 1.2A
contents ['kPntents] n. pl , 1.9A
continuous [Ðn'tInjVs] adj. , , , 1.5A
contractor [kqn'trxktq] n. , 1.8A
corrosion [kq'rqVZqn] n. 1.4B
cost [kPst] n. ; pl , , 1.4B
counteract ["kaVntqr'xkt] v. ; 1.5B
crack [krxk] n. 1.3B
crack v. , 1.4C
cracking n. , 1.2B
crane [kreIn] n. 1.5A
creep [krJp] n. , 1.3B
cross section ['krPs"sekSqn] n. 1.3A
crushed [krASt] rock 1.1A
cure [kjVq] v., n. 1. (), (), (); 2. () 1.5A
curing n. () 1.6A
curve [kWv] n. , , ; , 1.10B
curve v. (), (), () 1.9A
dead [ded] load , 1.4C
deflect [dI'flekt] v. (), () 1.11B
deflection [dI'flekSqn] n. , ; 1.7B
deformation ["dJfL'meISqn] n. 1.2A
density ['densItI] n. 1.4A
design [dI'zaIn] n. ; ; ; ; 1.1B
design v. , 1.1B
designer n. , 1.1B
dimension [dI'menSqn] n. 1.2A
dimensional adj. 1.7B
drawing ['drLIN] n. , , 1.1B
drill [drIl] v. , 1.12B
durability ["djVrq'bIlItI] n. , 1.4B
durable ['djVrqbql] adj. , 1.6A
elastic [I'lxstIk] adj. 1.7B
elastic modulus ['mPdjVlqs] 1.7B
elasticity ["Jlx'stIsItI] n. , 1.4B
elevation ["elI'veISqn] n. , ; 1.12B
eliminate [I'lImIneIt] v. , 1.1A
erect [I'rekt] v. , , 1.12C
erection [I'rekSqn] n. , , 1.9B
etc. [et'setqrq] n. , 1.4C
exert [Ig'zWt] v. (, ); , () 1.4C
expansion [Ik'spxnSqn] n. , 1.11B
extension [Ik'stenSqn] n. , ; ( ); () 1.7B
extent [Ik'stent] n. ; , 1.9A
F (degree Fahrenheit) ['fxrqnhaIt] 1.7A
fabric ['fxbrIk] n. , 1.12C
fabricate ['fbrIÐeIt] v. , ; ; , 1.4A
failure ['feIljq] n. , (), ; , ; , 1.2A
fatigue [fq'tJg] n. () 1.1A
fibre ['faIb] n. , 1.5A
filler ['fIlq] n. ; , , ; 1.5A
fire [faIq] resistance 1.6A
fireproof ['faIqprHf] adj. 1.7A
fix [fIks] v. , , , 1.10A
fixed adj. , , 1.9B
flexibility ["fleksI'bIlItI] n. , 1.11B
floor [flL] n. , , 1.6B
foot [fVt] n. ( 30,48 ) 1.4A
force ['fLs] n. , 1.1A
form [fLm] n. ( ); , ; , 1.5B
formwork n. 1.7A
foundation [faVn'deISqn] n. , 1.12C
girder ['gWdq] n. , () , , 1.8B
glass fibre ['faIbq] 1.11A
glass [glRs] n. 1.11A
grade [greId] n. , ; ; , ; ; ; () ; 1.9A
grade [greId] v. 1.6A
gravel ['grxvql] n. 1.1A
gravity ['grxvItI] n. , , 1.2A
ground [graVnd] n. , , ; 1.8B
harden ['hRdn] v. , 1.5A
hardness ['hRdnIs] n. , 1.11A
hardwood ['hRdwVd] n. () 1.10A
heating ['hJtIN] n. , ; 1.8C
humidity [hjH'mIdItÁ] n. 1.7A
impact ['Impxkt] n. ; ; ; ; , 1.3B
in. (inch) (2,54 ) 1.10B
inch [InC] n. (2,54 ) 1.2A
incorporate [In'kLpqreIt] v. ( ), 1.11A
ingredient [In'grJdIqnt] n. , , 1.5B
instability ["Instq'bIlItI] n. , 1.9A
insulation ["InsjV'leI¿qn] n. , 1.4A
inwards ['Inwqdz] adv. 1.4C
iron ['aIqn] n. 1.1A
jack [Gxk] n. ; (); , 1.8C
joint [GOInt] n. , , , 1.7B
laminated ['lxmIneItId] adj. , 1.10A
layer ['leIq] n. , ; ( ) 1.1A
lightweight ['laIËweIË] concrete ( 500 1800 /3) 1.4A
limestone ['laImstqVn] n. 1.1A
link [lINk] n. , ; 1.11A
live [laIv] load 1.4C
load [lqVd] n. , 1.2B
load v. , 1.12C
loading n. ; , 1.12C
long term ["lPN'tWm] adj. 1.7B
manufactured ["mxnjV'fxkCqÌ] prod uct , 1.1B
masonry ['meÁsqnrÁ] n. 1. ; 2. 1.1A
mass [mxs] n. 1.5B
mass production technique [tek'nJk] 1.8B
mechanical [mI'kxnIkql] adj. 1.4B
member ['membq] n. (), 1.2B
mesh [meS] n. ; ; , () 1.12C
metal ['metl] n. 1.3A
mix [mIks] n. ; 1.5A
mixture ['mIksCq] n. 1.1A
moisture ['mOIsCq] n. , 1.4B
mortar ['mLtq] n. 1.1A
movement ['mHvmqnt] joint 1.9B
nail [neIl] n. 1.10A
panel ['pxnl] n. , , ( ) 1.11A
paste [peIst] n. (), , 1.5A
per [pq; pW] prep. , 1.2A
permeability ["pWmIq'bIlItI] n. 1.6A
perpendicular ["pWpqn'dIkjVlq] adj. , 1.3A
placement ['pleIsmqnt] n. (, ) 1.8A
plane [pleIn] n. 1.4C
plaster ['plRstq] n. , ; 1.3A
plastic ['plxstIk] adj. 1.5B
plastic n. , 1.11A
plasticity [plx'stIsItI] n. 1.9B
plate [pleIt] n. , ; ; 1.9A
point [pOInt] n. ; , ; , ; ; 1.3A
portland cement ['pLtlqndsI'ment] 1.1A
pour [pL] v. 1. ; ; 2. , 1.1A
precast concrete () 1.5A
precast ["prJ'kRst] v. () 1.5A
prefabricate [prJ'fxbrIkeIt] v. 1.9B
pressure ['preSq] n. , , 1.8C
prestress ["prJ'stres] n. , 1.8C
prestress ["prJ'stres] v. 1.5A
procedure [prq'sJGq] n. , ; 1.1B
production [prq'dAkSqn] n. , 1.5A
project ['prPGekt] n. , ; 1.1B
property ['prPpqtI] n. , , ; , 1.4B
proportion [prq'pLSqn] n. ; (); 1.1A
range [reInG] n. ; , , 1.10A
rate [reIt] n. , , 1.4A
reinforce ["rJIn'fLs] v. , , 1.5A
reinforcement ["rJIn'fLsmqnt] n. ; , 1.11A
reinforcing bar ["rJIn'fLsIN] 1.8C
resin ['rezIn] n. 1.11A
resist [rI'zIst] v. ; , 1.2A
resistance [rI'zIstqns] n. , ; ; , 1.4B
resistant [rI'zIstqnt] adj. , 1.12C
rigid ['rIGId] adj. , 1.7A
rod [rPd] n. , 1.1A
rolled [rqVld] section 1.9A
roof [rHf] n. , () 1.3A
rust ['rst] v. 1.1A
safety ['seIftI] n. , 1.2B
sand [sænd] n. , 1.1A
sandwich ['sxnwIG] v. , ( ) 1.12C
screw [skrH] n. 1.10A
section ['sekSqn] n. , ( ); , , ; 1.8C
set [set] n. (); , ; () 1.7A
shape [SeIp] v. 1.12B
shear [SIq] n. , , 1.2A
shear strength , ; 1.2A
shock [SPk] n. , , 1.3B
short term ["SLt'tWm] adj. 1.10A
shrinkage ['SrINkIG] n. 1.6A
site [saIt] n. ; , ; 1.5A
slab [slxb] n. ( ) 1.8A
softwood ['sPftwVd] n. () 1.10A
soil [sOIl] n. , 1.6A
solid ['sPlId] adj. , ; ; , 1.4A
solution [sq'lHSqn] n. (); 1.4C
sound [saVnd] insulation 1.6B
span [spxn] n. ; , , 1.6B
spray [spreI] v. , 1.1A
stable ['steIbql] adj. , ; 1.4C
stainless ['steInlIs] steel 1.12C
standardise ['stxndqdaIz] v. 1.8B
state [steIt] n. , 1.5B
steel [stJl] n. 1.1A
steelwork ['stJlwWk] n. 1.9B
step [step] n. , ; (); , ; pl. 1.1B
stiffness ['stIfnqs] n. 1.9A
stone [stqVn] n. , 1.1A
storey ['stLrI] n. , 1.9B
strain [streIn] n. , , 1.2A
strength ['streŋθ] n. , ; , 1.1A
strengthen ['streŋθqn] v. , , 1.1A
stress [stres] n. 1.() , ; 2. ; 3. , 1.1A
stress [stres] v. , 1.3A
stretch [streC] n. , ; , 1.12C
stretch [streC] v. , , , , 1.2A
structural ['strAkCqrql] adj. ; 1.3B
structural member n. () 1.3B
structure ['strAkCq] n. , (); , ; 1.1B
subject [səb'Gekt] v. () 1.2A
successive [sqk'sesIv] adj. ; 1.8B
support [sq'pLt] n. , , 1.12B
support [sq'pLt] v. , 1.2B
surface ['sWfIs] n. , () 1.4C
temperature difference ['ËeÅÃrqÀq 'dIfqrqns] , 1.12A
tensile ['tensaIl] strength ; 1.1A
tensile stress 1.2A
tension ['tenSqn] n. 1. ; 2. ; 3. , 1.1A
tension ['tenSqn] v. , , 1.8C
thermal ['¾´Åql] adj. , 1.4A
thermal conductivity ["kPndAk'tIvItI] -, 1.4A
thermal insulation 1.6A
thrust [TrAst] n. , ; ; , 1.4C
tie [taI] n. () , , ; ; (); ; 1.7B
tile [taIl] n. 1. ; 2. ; 3. (, ) 1.1A
timber ['tImbq] n. , , ; 1.6B
tonne [tAn] n. ()(=1000 .) 1.5A
toughened ['tAfqnd] glass 1.12A
transmission [trxnz'mISqn] n. , , 1.12C
transmit [trxnz'mIt] v. 1.4A
transportation ["trxnspL'teISqn] n. 1.8B
tube [tjHb] n. , ; ; 1.10A
twist [twIst] v. , ; , 1.2A
unit ['jHnIt] n. , , (); , 1.2A
unit stress ; 1.2A
value ['vxljH] n. , ; ; ; 1.2A
variation ["veqrI'eISqn] n. , , , 1.7B
versatile ['vWsqtaIl] adj. 1.1A
void [vOId] n. , 1.5A
volume ['vPljHm] n. 1.4A
wall [wLl] n. , 1.6B
weathering ['weDqrIN] n. , 1.12C
weld [weld] v. , 1.9A
welding n. 1.9B
wire [waIq] n. , 1.8C
wood [wVd] n. , , 1.1A
working ['wWkIN] stress , 1.2B
| 1.1 | have es / s | |
| 1.2 | there + to be can, may, must | |
| 1.3 | the the that | there + to be can, may, must |
| 1.4 | Simple be have to, be to, should, ought to | that |
| 1.5 | - ly - er | Simple |
| 1.6 | there + to be have to, be to, should, ought to | |
| 1.7 | - ion, - ment | Simple that |
| 1.8 | al, - able, - ive as as | have - ion, - ment |
| 1.9 | - ant/ent - ness one | |
| 1.10 | - ly one | |
| 1.11 | - (i)ty | the the |
| 1.12 | Present Perfect it - do / does / did | one that |
1. Herubin, Charles A., Marotta, Theodore W. Basic Construction Materials. Reston Publishing Company, 1981, ISBN 0-8359-0362-1.
2. Derucher, Kenneth N., Korfiatis George P. Materials for Civil and Highway Engineers. Englewood Cliffs, 1988, ISBN 0-13-560509-1.
3. Francis, Arthur J. Introducing Structures. Oxford, 1980, ISBN 0-07-022701-5.
4. Orton, Andrew. The Way We Build Now. Wokingham, 1988, ISBN 0-74760-011-2.
5. .. - . , , 2003, ISBN 5-200-03176-1.
6. - .. .. 3- , , , 1993, ISBN 5-200-01848-X
7. .., .., .. - . , , 1995, ISBN 5-200-02313-0
8. .., .., .. - . , , 1990, ISBN 5-200-00758-5.
9. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman Dictionaries, Harlow, 2005, ISBN 1-405-81126-9
108
I
270102 , 270106 , , 270114 .
:
:
..
..
蠠 6080 1/16......
.-... 500 . ѻ
- - .
198005, -, . 2- , 4.
. 198005, -, 2- ., 5.
