Neuropsychologists view consciousness as ingrained in neural systems and organic brain structures. A major part of the modern scientific literature on consciousness consists of studies that examine the relationship between the experiences reported by subjects and the activity that simultaneously takes place in their brainsthat is, studies of the neural correlates of consciousness. The hope is to find activity in a particular part of the brain, or a particular pattern of global brain activity, that will be strongly predictive of conscious awareness. Several brain-imaging techniques, such as EEG and fMRI, have been used for physical measures of brain activity in these studies.
11. Show up pre-determinants of psychology transforming to an independent science. As a science, psychology deals with the study of the facts, mechanisms and patterns in everyday mental life. History of psychology allows us to describe and explain how these facts and laws have become available to the human mind. The main tasks of the history of psychology can be identified: The need to study the laws of development of knowledge on all aspects of the psyche;
The need for disclosure of the relationship between science of psychology with other sciences, influencing its development and achievements;
The need to gain knowledge about the origin and development of science;
The study of the role of personality and individual ways of its development.
History of Psychology describes and explains the facts and laws that opened the human mind. Thus, the subject of the history of psychology - is the direct activities of people involved in the knowledge and the development of mental peace. This activity is carried out in the system the following coordinates: social, cognitive and personality. Thus, scientific activity is three-pronged integrated system:
Review and study of the soul - in this case, the soul serves as an explanatory principle of all things happening with the living beings;
Review and study of consciousness - consciousness performs two functions. First, it is the object of study. Second, it acts as an explanatory principle;
Examination and study of the behavior - is regarded as the last of the new object. Its appearance caused the disappearance of the object of study, IE the psyche and consciousness. The current stage of development is characterized by a close relationship between the behavior and consciousness, as well as the activity itself.
The subject of the history of psychology has the following objectives:
An analysis of the emergence and development of scientific knowledge about the psyche in terms of the scientific approach to the study of representations of the psyche of living beings at all stages of evolution;
Analysis of interdisciplinary links with the sciences, which depend on all sorts of achievements of psychology;
The origin of the knowledge of the cultural, social and ideological influences;
The study, the analysis and the role of personal development with the establishment of science.
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Basic methods of psychology's history.
Methods of the history of psychology is certainly different from the methods of psychology science. It is impossible to use any method of psychological science. Proper methods of the history of psychology can be taken from related disciplines such as history, science of science, sociology, etc., as they come in the context of scientific psychology, a concrete historical situation and culture.
Considering the sources of the history of psychology (archives, works of scientists, the analysis of historical and sociological materials and literature), were identified several groups of methods of the history of psychology:
Organizational methods, ie Planning methods of historical and psychological research:
Rather-comparative method;
Structurally-analytical method:
Genetic metodzh
Methods based on the collection and interpretation of the logic of the material facts:
Analysis of the products;
Categorical and conceptual analysis;
Methods of analysis of historical works and materials:
Methods of historical reconstruction;
Problemologichesky analysis;
Methods based on the thematic knowledge:
Thematic analysis;
bibliotrichnogo method of analysis;
source analysis method;
interview techniques;
Biographical method.
All of the above methods of the history of psychology applied in different teachings: the materialistic doctrine in ancient psychology, idealistic teachings of Plato and Socrates, Aristotle's doctrine of the soul, the teachings of the ancient doctors, etc.
12. Describe peculiarities of associative approach in psychology (J. Lock, D. Hartley, W. Wundt). Association in psychology refers to a connection between conceptual entities or mental states that results from the similarity between those states or their proximity in space or time. The idea stems from Plato and Aristotle, especially with regard to the succession of memories, and it was carried on by philosophers such as John Locke, David Hume, David Hartley, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, and Alexander Bain. It finds its place in modern psychology in such areas as conditioning and in neural network models of memory.
The following discussion assumes the point of view of associationistic theory. Some modern theorists disagree with this approach; they argue that it is very misleading to try to understand mental or brain function as a network of associations.
Memory seems to operate as a sequence of associations: concepts, words and opinions are intertwined, so that stimuli such as a persons face will call up the associated name.Understanding the relationships between different items is fundamental to episodic memory, and damage to the hippocampal region of the brain has been found to hinder learning of associations between objects.
Pavlovian/classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is an example of associationistic learning. In his famous experiment, Pavlov paired the sound of a bell with food, and later the dog salivated to the bell alone, indicating that an association had been established between the bell and food.
Operant conditioning
In operant conditioning behaviors increase in strength and/or frequency when they have been followed by reward.This is theorized to follow from an association between the behavior and a mental representation of the reward (such as food).
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Implicit association
Associations in humans can be measured with the Implicit Association Test, a psychological test which measures the implicit (subconscious) relation between two concepts. It has been used in investigations of subconscious racial bias. The test measures the associations between different ideas, such as race and crime. Reaction time is used to distinguish associations; faster reaction time is an indicator of a stronger association.
13. Discuss methodological causes of psychology's crisis at the beginning of 20-th century. Since the second half of the XIX century. psychology became an independent science. Its main method is declared introspection. Thanks to Wundt in psychology includes scientific laboratory experiment. It creates the world's first psychological laboratory, first in Germany, then in Russia and in the United States.
At the beginning of the XX century. there is crisis in psychology. Her reasons were several:
separation of psychology from the practice;
almost deadlock associated with long-term use of introspection as the primary method of scientific research, has failed;
inability to explain a number of the most fundamental issues of psychology, in particular - the connection of psychic phenomena with physiological and human behavior.
At the same time it showed a large gap between theory and practice. Many theoretical constructions, which are located to the psychology of the time were not well grounded and confirmed by experimental data, and those that are cited as evidence of relevant theories, does not hold water in terms of statistical significance. Provisions postulates introspective, atomistic (associative) psychology was very difficult to reconcile with the new facts, the transformation trends, manifested in various other fields of knowledge.
14. Denote contribution of I.P. Pavlov's physiological achievements to psychology's scientific background. The Russian scientist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born in 1849 in Ryazan, where his father worked as a village priest. In 1870 Ivan Pavlov abandoned the religious career for which he had been preparing, and instead went into science. He created the doctrine of higher nervous activity (behavior) of living beings. Based on the principle of evolutionary - biological explanations of functions of the organism as a whole system, which is the main regulator of activity is the nervous system ("nervism" principle).
On a huge experimental data showed that the main act of behavior is a conditioned reflex, realized higher nerve centers - the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres and the nearest subcortex. They were comprehensively studied the laws of the dynamics of nervous processes (inhibition, irradiation, concentration, etc.) That determines external behavior. Along with conditioned reflexes reflexes were allocated other categories (the orienting reflex, reflex goal, freedom reflex), explaining the uniqueness of biological activity. Senses Pavlov interpreted as analyzers, seeing holistic "devices" in them. Interaction with the environment, he is thought of as an adjustable external agents that act as signals. They allow the body to distinguish the properties of external objects and to operate effectively in a volatile and unpredictable environments, for anticipating future events. Signals are systemic in nature, and they form two systems: sensory (sensation, presentation) and verbal (words, oral and written signs of human speech). Thanks to the second signal as a result of the analysis and synthesis of sensual images appear generalized mental images (or concepts).
Having a biological origin, the conditioned reflex is formed on the basis of innate, unconditional, and the body is constantly learns to distinguish, to differentiate the signals. If the signal leads to success, t. E. Reinforced, between him and the response of an organism is formed bond, which if repeated becoming stronger. However, it is temporary, and if no further reinforced, due to the inhibition of nerve processes extinguished. Pavlov and his school thoroughly studied the dynamics of the formation and change of conditioned reflexes, revealing the mechanisms of many neuro - psychiatric manifestations, including neurosis.
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Pavlov studied and other reflexes, particularly indicative, or, as he called it, a reflex "What's that?". It lies in the fact that the body is like constantly asking this question the world around them, trying to assess the situation in which he found himself, and to understand what is most valuable to him. He also developed a theory about the different types of higher nervous activity (temperaments), the dynamic stereotype as a stable complex reactions and others.
Psychologically the community Pavlov's doctrine was widely rated as the basis of all of the behavioral sciences.
15. Find out main drawbacks of introspection as a method of psychological research. The term introspection can be used to describe both an informal reflection process and a more formalized experimental approach. The first meaning is the one that most people are probably the most familiar with, which involves informally examining our own internal thoughts and feelings. When we reflect on our thoughts, emotions, and memories and examine what they mean, we are engaging in introspection. The introspection method has advantages as well as disadvantages. First, let us consider the advantages.
Advantages of Introspection Method:
i. It is an easy and simple method and provides direct observation of mental processes. By other scientific methods, the mental processes cannot be directly observed since those are purely private and personal experiences. Introspection is the only method by which the person can be directly aware of his own experiences.
ii. While using experimental method to study the mental activities, a laboratory and scientific instruments are required. But for the use of introspection method, no laboratory or test materials are required. So introspection method can be used at any time and at any place.
iv. The subjective observation method provides an opportunity to check the results obtained through other methods. For example, the general finding is that the pleasant materials are better remembered than the unpleasant materials. Suppose, in an experiment the results suggested that the unpleasant materials were better remembered than the pleasant materials. The reason for this unexpected finding can be found from the introspective report given by the subject. The subject might have reported that he was inattentive or mentally disturbed or feeling unwell when the pleasant materials were presented to him. Here the introspective report would be helpful in explaining the results.
In spite of some advantages, the method of introspection or subjective observation has some disadvantages.
Disadvantages of Introspection Method:
i. The observer is expected to perform two mental activities simultaneously. He experiences his mental processes, and at the same time analyzes what these experiences were like. At the same time, he acts as the 'observed', and the 'observer'. Obviously, his mental experiences would be distorted, and not reflect the true nature of mental activities.
ii. The subjective observational report provided lacks objectivity, as the verbal report of the subject cannot be verified by other scientists. Furthermore, the experiences of one person cannot be generalized to understand the mental activity of another person. A universal principle concerning the mental processes cannot be stated, as mental processes would differ from person to person. Thus, the method lacks scientific validity.
iii. Most persons would not like to reveal their private experiences such as the feelings of guilt and shame. The report in such cases would be distorted
iv. The method of subjective observation cannot be applied to the study of the mental activities of the animals, children, insane, and persons having language disabilities. The behaviors of these subjects are of interest to the psychologists. Thus, introspection has only a limited applicability.
v. The unconscious experiences cannot be accessed through introspection. The psychoanalytic school founded by Freud argues that most of human behaviors are influenced by the unconscious motives and urges. A person cannot observe his unconscious mental processes, which means that the method of subjective observation leaves out a large chunk of relevant mental experiences.
