- The vacuum (spacetime) is extraordinarily energetic. For practical purposes, it contains unlimited energy density {16}. Since the vacuum/spacetime contains energy and energy density, it is therefore an extraordinarily powerful potential essentially infinite in its point intensity.
- A curvature of spacetime is identically a change in the ambient vacuum potential, and hence in the available vacuum energy. Energy available means that, to use it, there must exist a potential difference and gradient between two separated pointsand thus an energy current (a free EM wind, so to speak). Thus a dipolarity (polarization) is required, to produce a vacuum form or engine that will interact on mass to produce a force, by a constant wind of vacuum energy acting upon it.
- An engine {17} is defined as a set of spacetime curvatures and vacuum flux exchangesand their dynamicswhich can act upon the elements of a mass system to generate its state and its dynamics. The simplest engine is a gradient in the potential. Also, an engine is a set of controlled and dynamic EM energy currents.
- An engine is also referred to as a vacuum engine or a spacetime curvature engine.
- The engine exists in spacetime as curvature(s) of spacetime, whether or not it is interacting with mass.
- The engine itself is nonobservable; its interacting with mass is observable.
- The engine may move or be moved through spacetime independently of interacting with matter. It is pure energy transfer, and it is work-free.
- A force is just the coupling of the simplest engine to mass, with mass-translating orientation. Unless both the engine and mass are present and dynamically coupled, there is no force. We strongly note that mass is a component of force, by F /t(mv), and classical mechanics errs in assuming a separate massless force operating upon a separate mass. That notion remains one of the great errors in modern physics.
- When a force F translates through a distance, that is the classical notion of external mechanical work W, by the equation W = Fdl. Note thatclassicallymass has been moved, and the system engine has performed external work on the mass.
- Stress on a mass or in a system is the simultaneous application of two or more engines working on the mass or system in such manner that all translation vectors sum to zero vectorially. Hence no external work is done, but internal work is done on the system to produce and continuously maintain this stress with zero translation.
- Work is not the change of magnitude of energy in a single form! It is the change of form of energy, from one form to another.
- Thus there is a century-old error in the present First Law of thermodynamics: Any change of magnitude of an external parameter (such as the field or potential of a system) has been erroneously defined as work. It is not work if the extra energy is input in the same form. In that case it is asymmetric regauging, and involves only energy transfer without change of form, which requires no work. Regauging is free, by the gauge freedom axiom. The present form of the First Law would rule out gauge freedoma fact which seems not to have been previously noticed.
- The supersystem {17} consists of the physical mass system together with its engines and all the ongoing mutual interactions. Hence supersystem dynamics is analyzed simultaneously between (i) the physical system, (ii) the local active curvatures of spacetime, and (iii) the local active vacuum. All three components of the supersystem continually interact with each other.
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Discussion 4: Nonequilibrum steady state (NESS) systems can permissibly exhibit COP > 1.0 and even COP = .
- A system far from equilibrium in its energy exchange with its environment can steadily and freely receive environmental energy and dissipate it in external loads, exhibiting COP > 1.0 (as does a heat pump) or COP = (as do the solar cell, windmill, waterwheel, sailboat, etc.).
- However, Lorentz symmetrical regauging selects only those Maxwellian systems in net equilibrium with their external vacuum environment. Symmetrical regauging systems can only use their excess free regauging energy from the vacuum to do internal work on the system, changing the stress on or in the system, with the dissipated energy then being returned from the stressing action to the vacuum. Such systems cannot use their excess vacuum energy to do free external work on the load.
- The standard Lorentz regauging of Maxwells equations thus arbitrarily discards all Maxwellian NESS systems using vacuum energy to do useful external work.
- In electrical power systems, the ubiquitous use of the closed current loop circuit self-enforces Lorentz symmetrical regauging. That is totally arbitrary, but unrecognized.
- The present-day absence of COP > 1.0 normal electrical power systems, doing external work and freely taking all their input energy from the local vacuum and spacetime curvature, is strictly due to the archaic electrical engineering model and the prevailing use of the closed current loop circuit.
- Electrical power engineers easily adapt for a COP = system such as a solar cell, utilizing energy from its observably active environment. They will not even go and learn (and adapt their archaic model) to properly utilize every systems nonobservable active vacuum environment for energy to do external work. Instead, they will unwittingly only allow the active vacuum to produce stress in the system, by using only self-symmetrically-regauging systems (the closed current loop circuit).
- For a COP > 1.0 or COP = electrical power systemtaking some or all of its input energy freely from its active external (vacuum) environment, analogous to a home heat pumpthe system must violate the closed current loop condition (symmetrical regauging) for at least a significant fraction of the operational cycle of the system. In simple terms, the system must be open to receiving and transducing translational energy from its external environmentin this case, the active vacuumrather than just stressing energy.
- There also emerge additional flaws in classical thermodynamics, including in its fundamental definitions:
- An open system is defined as one that has mass transfer across its borders (and may have energy transfer as well).
- A closed system is defined as one that has no mass transfer across its borders, but may have energy transfer across them. Since the early 1900s, mass and energy are known to be identically the same thing, called mass-energy. Hence any closed system that has energy transfer also has its mass changed, and actually is an open system.
- An isolated system is defined as one in which no energy or mass is exchanged across its boundary. There exists no such system in the entire universe, due to the universal exchange of energy and mass between vacuum and system.
- The ubiquitous energetic exchangebetween vacuum (and curved spacetime) and the systemdoes not appear in classical thermodynamics. Yet there is no final conservation of energy unless both the virtual and observable state energy exchanges are considered in ones analysis.
- In the presence of opposite charges and their broken symmetry, much of the virtual vacuum energy absorbed in a dipolar system becomes observable energy in the system. For that reason, the present classical thermodynamics rules are approximations, useful in a great many cases but not absolute. As Kondepudi and Prigogine point out {18}: there is no final formulation of science; this also applies to thermodynamics.
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