1. Sociological explanation of religion.
Sociology stands on the conception that religions and belief in God fulfill some functions in human society. Each of the major sociological perspectives make an important contribution to understanding the relationship between religion and society.
Ludwig Feuerbach
Ludwig Feuerbach was a 19-th century German philosopher who proposed that religion was just a human being’s consciousness of the infinite. He said that human ideas about God were no more than the projection of humanity’s ideas about man on an imaginary supernatural being.
A. The structural- functionalist theory
Sociologists of this perspective view religion as serving an essential role in preserving social order: religion helps reinforce group identity, offer solace in time of crises and promote morality.
E. Durkheim
Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, thought that religion was something produced by human society and had nothing supernatural about it.
Durkheim described 4 major functions of religion:
1) Social solidarity. Religion is seen as something that unites a community or believers. The common beliefs and practices of a religion helps foster a common identity that binds members together.
2) Social control. Religion helps to maintain social order. The beliefs, norms, teachings of religions help shape human behavior.
3) Providing meaning and purpose of life. Religion is a source of answers.
4) Psychological/ Emotional support. People turn to religion in a time of crisis. Religion can offer psychological comfort in times of extreme stress.
B. The symbolic interactionist theory.
According to symbolic interactionists all religions use symbols to create group identity and solidarity. Christians rally around the cross, Jews around star of David, Moslems-the crescent moon and star. Religious symbols are a form of communication, religious rituals and practices help unite people into a moral community.
C. The conflict theory.
Conflict theorists think that religion has been used to maintain the status quo.
Karl Marx
He considered religion to be the “opium of the people”. It meant that the ruling class in a society uses religion to maintain its position of dominance over the lower classes. Religion is like a drug that helps people to forget how miserable their lives are. Religion maintains social inequality.
M. Weber’s views on religion.
In his book “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” (1905) M. Weber saw a strong connection between religious values and economic value. He differed from Marx and Durkheim in that he thought that religious values tend to influence and shape social structure rather than reflect it. The ethic of Protestantism is: work hard, save money, got ahead.
2. Functions of religion
Functions of religion in society:
1) religion creates special understanding of the universe based on supernatural and superpower Spirit of Ration that rules over all processes in the universe
2) compensating function helps a man to compensate his weakness and sufferings by belief, divert from unwanted life situations
3) integrating and differentiating –it integrates believers and at the same time disintegrate them on religious basis.
4) regulating- religion tends to support the normative structure of society, sustains the existing class structure. Religion may both promote and retard social change.
Questions for self-check
1. Ludwig Feuerbach view on religion
2. Theory of Durkheim
3. Theory of Marx
4. Theory of Weber
5. Function of religion in society
Glossary
Infinite- бесконечность
Solace- утешение
Crescent- полумесяц
Reference
Музафарова Н.И. История религий. Ростов-на Дону, 2004., стр.7-57
David S. Noss, A History of the World Religions. N.Y. London. 1990, p. 5-32
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religious
III. Primitive Religion
1. Religious views and rituals in the primitive society
Primitive religion- is a name given to a religion of prehistoric cultures (the cultures of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic ages).
Religious views were founded on mythological consciousness which combined realistic knowledge, arts, social norms in the times when a man was only a small part of nature. Primitive cultures were more open to the world of natural forms; due to this openness a man treated the world as a sacred reality.
Rituals are one of the form of religious behavior in cultures. Rituals express the great transitions in human life:
- Birth (coming into life)
- Puberty (the recognition and expression of sexual state)
- Marriage (the acceptance of an adult role in the society)
- Death (the return to the world of the ancestors)
They vary in form, importance and intensity from one culture to another.
In addition to these life cycle rituals, rituals are associated with the beginning of the new year and with planting and harvest times. Numerous other rituals are linked with hunting (games to give the hunter more luck)
Another class of rituals is related to occasional events (wars, draughts, catastrophes)- they are intended to appease supernatural forces who might be the cause of the events. 
2. Forms of primitive religion. Fetishism
Fetishism (Latin- factitius- made by art, artificial). The word was probably first applied to idols and amulets made by hand and supposed to possess magic power.
Fetishism has various forms: 1) a worship of material subjects (stocks, stones, bows);
2) a belief in spirits incorporated in single objects; this form is connected with the magic;
3) fetish is not the object of worship, but a means by which man is brought into close contact with the deity.
A fetish may often be used for magic purposes.
At times it is difficult to distinguish between an idol and an amulet. An amulet is a pledge of protection of a divine power. Idolatry is a higher form of fetishism.
3. Animism
Animism ( from “ animus” – mind or soul). Two explanations:
1) belief in spirits- supernatural beings or souls inhabit all objects and govern their existence.
2) the world is treated as a community of living persons, only some of whom are human.
The second animism relates respectfully with the persons (human, rock, plant, animal, bird, etc.) who are also members of the community of life.
Animism can be stated simply as “ everything is alive”, “everything is conscious”, “ everything has a soul”. Nature is all alive. Every object is controlled by its own independent spirit. Spirits are seen in the rivers, the lakes, the fountains, the woods, the mountains, the trees, the animals, the flowers. Spiritual existences – elves, gnomes, ghosts, demons, deities- inhabit almost everything, and consequently almost everything is an object of worship. Views of animism are essential part of many religions.
4. Totemism
Totemism is a religious belief in totem. Totem is usually an animal or other figure that spiritually represents a person or a clan. It may be natural or supernatural object. (bears, birds, frogs, masks, pictograms, ancestors). Totem has a symbolic meaning. A few believe that totem acts as a spirit guide. The main features of the religious aspect of Totemism are shown in the rites and ceremonies performed with an aim to show or to attain identity with the totem.
· The totem animal is sacrificed and eaten even by its own clan.
· Personal names referring to the appearance or habits of the totem animal are adopted.
· Skin or other parts of the totem animal are used as dresses, masks, tattoo; totems are painted or carved on weapons, canoes, huts, etc.
· Dances and songs related to the myths are performed
· Totems are used as consultants.
5. Magic
Magic is an interference with the usual course of physical nature by apparently inadequate means (recitation of formularies, gestures, etc.), the knowledge of which is obtained through secret communication with the force underlying the universe (God, the Devil, the soul of the world).
Magic may be harmful (“black” magic against mankind), military, hunting, medical, love.
Shamanism is a specific form of magic, by which physical nature was believed to be brought under the control of man. Shamanism rests for its basis on the animistic view of nature. In respect to spirits, man is in a state of helplessness. The shaman by appropriate words and acts uses his power to protect man and to envelop him in a kind of protective armour so that the evil spirits become inactive.
Questions for self-check
1. Religious views of primitive societies
2. Rituals in primitive societies
3. Fetishism
4. Animism
5. Totemism
Glossary
Sacred- священный, святой- қасиетті
Ritual (rite)- ритуал- жора
Primitive religion- первобытная религия- алғашқы дін
Transition- переходный период
Soul- душа жан
Conscious- сознательный
Sacrifice- приносить в жертву
Ancestor - предок
Armour- вооружение; доспехи- сауыт- сайман
Evil- зло, несчастье
Reference
Астапов С.Н., История религий, М., 2007, стр. 12-22
Музафарова Н.И. История религий. Ростов -на Дону, 2004., стр. 58-64
David S. Noss, A History of the World Religions. N.Y. London. 1990, p. 10-21
http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Totemism
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/animism
IV. World religions. Buddhism
1. Buddha and his teaching
The term “ Buddhism” refers to a diverse array of beliefs and practices and is used in the West, the Buddhists use the term Dharma (Pali, Dhamma)- “ the norm which is true” or Sasana - “system”.
Buddhism is
- a religion,
- a series of practices
- and a way of life based on the teaching of Buddha who after achieving enlightenment, taught that the nature of the world is constant change.
Who is Buddha? Born near Nepal in 623 B.C. Buddha was first named Prince Siddhartha Gautama. Four great omens сhanged his views about existence: outside his palace one day he came across first a decrepit old man, then a diseased man, a corpse and a hermit- these Four Sights were the Prince’s first awakening to deeper truths about life. At 29, he left the royal court to wander the country as a monk searching for a way to end suffering.
At 35, he achieved the state of Enlightenment also known as Buddhahood and Nirvana.
He managed to answer the question how to stop suffering – to refuse from desire. Buddha taught that everything in the world is impermanent and it is impossible to understand the true nature of life on Earth that leads to our unhappiness and suffering. Buddhism is a way to correct our view, conduct and expectation of life.
The three main directions of Buddhism
After the Buddha’s death, the order of Buddhist believers known as the Sangha continued to grow and split into many groups. These groups began to form monasteries throughout India and Buddhism and three major branches of Buddhism were formed: the Theravada ( the doctrine of the elders), the Mahayana (the Great Wheel), and Vajrayana or Tantrayana (the Diamond Vehicle).
These groups make up the Buddhist community and the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha are known as “Three Jewels” of Buddhism as they represent qualities which are excellent and precious like a gem.
Buddha means the “Fully Enlightened One” or “Awakened One” as He realized the Truth and sees things as they really are; he knows what is good and what is not good for all beings. Out of great compassion, He shows people the path leading to the end of suffering.
The Dharma is the teaching about the nature of life. It is contained in the three collections of scriptures called the Tripitaka or Three Baskets.
The Sangha is the community of Noble ones who have led exemplary lives and attained extraordinary insight into the true nature of things. Their lives and achievements show others that it is possible to progress on the path to Enlightenment.
Vajrayana or Tantrayana form of Buddhism was spread in Tibet as Lamaism that in translation means “supreme”. The Lama is considered representative of Buddha on the Earth.
Rejection of religious devotion. Buddhism has no creator God who exits apart from this or any other universe. Buddhism rejects religious devotion as a way of salvation, it believes that the universe abounded (изобилует)in gods, goddesses, demons and other non-human powers, but all are finite, subject to death and rebirth.
2. Principles of Buddhism
The answer to the fundamental ethical problem: In what way to live?- Buddha compressed into the
Four Noble Truths:
· Dukkha- All worldly life is unsatisfactory, containing suffering
· Samudaya- There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire
· Nirodha- There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
· 
Marga- There is a path that leads out of suffering known as Noble Eightfold Path (“ the path that leads to no- desire” )
The Eightfold Path
1. Right Understanding
2. Right Thought
3. Right Speech
4. Right Action
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Concentration
3. Key ideas of Buddhism
· The Spirit of Free Inquiry – The Buddha encouraged people to investigate the truth of his teachings for themselves before accepting his ideas. He never expected people to practice His Teaching out of “ blind faith” and superstition, but instead encouraged a free spirit of questions. People should accept and practice Teachings and lifestyles they find to be physically and mentally beneficial.
· Self-reliance and individual effort. There are two main ways that Buddha focus on self-reliance. 1) each person must work out for themselves the way to end their sufferings and attain happiness;
2) it is up to each person to realize that it is their own actions that determine their future. In Buddhist thinking each individual’s destiny is not determined by an outside power but the way we live our own lives.
· Tolerance
· Loving-kindness and compassion
· Buddhism and science- there is no any conflict. Buddhism agrees that many things Buddha taught 2500 years ago have been proven by science(power of mind, divisibility of atom, the relativity of matter and energy, structure of the universe were taught by Buddha even before science)
Question for self-check
1. What is Buddhism?
2. Influence of Buddha’s life on his teaching
3. Three main direction of Buddhism
4. Explain “4 Noble Truths”
5. Key ideas of Buddhism
6. The Eightfold Path and its meaning.
Glossary
Enlightenment- просветление, просвещение- ағарту
Omen- знак, предзнаменование- белгісі
Devotion- набожность
Self-reliance- уверенность в своих силах
Practice- обряд- салт, ғұрып
Salvation- спасение
Scripture- писание
Reference
Музафарова Н.И. История религий, 2004, стр. 111-147
Религии мира, М., 1996, стр. 5-24
World Religions (KAU library), Charter” Buddhism”
http;//www. nationmaster.com./encyclopedia/Buddhism
IV. Christianity
1. Outline of the lecture
1. History of Christianity
Christianity is the world’s most widely spread religion with more than 2 billion adherents.
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus described in the New Testament. The term “Christ” derives from the Greek adjective which means “ anointed”, “Messiah”. “Christian” means “belonging to Christ”
History
Christianity originated in the 1 century AD in Palestine which was part of the Roman Empire. Jesus’ followers were first called Christians by non-Christians in the city of Antioch where they had fled and settled after early persecution in Judea. Christianity emerged as a protest against violence and inequality, their first meetings were secret and they were killed for their faith.
Jesus claimed to be long awaited Jewish Messiah. Mary, the mother of Jesus, gave birth to the Son of God. From her he received humanity and will and all else a child would receive from his mother. Jesus was born or came to Earth because people were forgetting God. He came to his people to save them from suffering. He preached new teaching, but Judea’s clergy proclaimed Jesus teaching as false and he was condemned to death.
Jesus was condemned of blasphemy and executed by crucifixion around 30 AD.
But on the third day Jesus resurrected and came to his apostles (his disciples).
Jesus apostles were the main witnesses that after his crucifixion, he rose from the dead. The apostles spread messages about Christ (Gospels ) all overthe Roman Empire and thus made Christianity the world religion.
2. Jesus teaching
Two main rules which Jesus told his followers to live by:
· Love God withal your heart, mind and strength
· Love your neighbour as yourself
Key to Heaven are The Ten Commandments from Jesus
1. I am the Lord your God: you shall not have strange Gods before me.
2. You shall not have any idols.
3. You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain.
4. Remember to keep holy the Lord’s Day.
5. Honor your father and your mother.
6. You shall not kill
7. You shall not commit adultery.
8. You shall not steal
9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour
10. you shall not covet your neighbour’s wife, you neighbour’s goods.
3. Christian doctrine
The central belief of Christianity is the faith in the sacrificial death and resurrection of Jesus.
Crucial beliefs are:
- Jesus’ incarnation (God becoming human)
- atonement (healing of the breach between God and humanity)
- crucifixion (he died on the cross for the mankind sins)
- death and resurrection (“For our Salvation”)
Christians believe they should live according the example of Jesus.
Christians have only one life. This life is judged after death by the way it was lived. Heaven is where the soul resides if one lived a good life; Hell is for those who lived a bad life.
The most uniform and broadly accepted tradition of doctrine includes
* There is only one God
* God is a Trinity, the single eternal being existing in 3 persons: Father, Son and Holy Spirit. God the Father made the world, he is the ultimate creator-sustainer-sovereign of the universe. God the Son is the active element, God’s creating word, and humanity’s judge. The Holy Spirit is the divine breath, the presence of God with humanity. These 3 parts make up the one true God.
* Jesus is both God and human, 2 natures in one person
* Jesus is the Messiah, the heir to the throne of David. He is the hope of all mankind, their advocate and judge.
* Jesus was innocent of any sin. Through his death and resurrection, believers are forgiven their sins.
* The Holy Spirit is sent to bring hope and lead mankind into true knowledge of God and his purposes.
* Jesus will return personally and bodily to judge all mankind
* The Bible is the word of God. This is divided into the Old Testament and New Testament.
4. Christian sacraments
Baptism (Christening). A baby is symbolically washed with holy water representing the sins being washed away and being reborn as a Christian.
God parents are chosen to represent the child.
Confirmation. When child is old enough to make promise to God- he/she confirms the promise made by God parents at the Christening.
Marriage. The wedding service has promises that the couple make to each other.
Death. Person who dies is joining Jesus.
Holy Communion. Christians have shared blessed bread and wine and given thanks for Jesus life, death and resurrection
5. Christian Festivals
Christmas. Christians celebrate Jesus’ birth.
Lent
Palm Sunday –the first Day of the Holy week. Jesus rode into Jerusalem
Good Friday (страстная пятница)- Jesus died on the cross
Easter Sunday. The most important festival for Christians; they exchange cards and Easter eggs- a symbol of spring and new life that Jesus brought to Christians.
Questions for self- check
1. Origin of Christianity
2. Jesus and his teaching
3. How and why was Christianity spread?
4. Main ideas of Jesus teaching
5. Main points of Christian doctrine
6. Christian sacraments.
7. Christian festivals
Glossary
Adherent- приверженец, последователь- ізбасар
New Testament- Новый Завет Жаңа Өсиет
Gospel - евангелие (добрая весть) інжіл
Anointed- помазанник (посланник бога) құдайдың елшісі
Preach- проповедовать
Messiah- мессия
Blasphemy- богохульство
Crucifixion- распятие
Resurrection- воскрешение
Disciple- ученик
Sin- грех күнә
Incarnation- воплощение, олицетворение
Sacrament- таинство
Communion- причастие
Lent (fast)- пост
6.Reference
Музафарова Н.И. История религий, стр. 157-148
A History of the World Religions, charter: “Christianity”
www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Christianity
