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Unit III. Learning vocabulary




 

GENERAL ADVICE

What does knowing a new word mean?

It is not enough just to know the meaning of a word. You also need to know:

- what words it is usually associated with

- whether it has any particular grammatical characteristics

- how it is pronounced

Try to learn new words not in isolation but in phrases.

Write down adjectives together with nouns they are often associated with and vice versa, e.g. royal family; rich vocabulary.

Write down verbs with the structure and nouns associated with them, e.g. to add to our knowledge of the subject; to express an opinion.

Write down nouns in phrases, e.g. in contact with; a train set; shades of opinion.

Write down words with their prepositions, e.g. at a high level; thanks to your help.

Note any grammatical characteristics of the words you are studying. For example, note when a verb is irregular and when a noun is uncountable or is only used in the plural.

Make a note of any special pronunciation problems with the words youre learning.

 

1. How could you record the following?

a) chilly b) dissuade c) king

d) up to the ears e) independent f) get married

2. What would you record beside the following words?

a) scissors b) weather c) teach

d) advice e) lose f) trousers

3. What might you note beside the following words?

a) comb b) catastrophe

c) photograph / photographer

 

What should you do when you come across new words?

 

When you are reading something in English, dont look up every new word or expression or you will soon get fed up. Only look up something that is really important for understanding the text. When you have finished reading, look back at what you have read and then perhaps look up some extra words and write down new expressions that interest you.

Similarly when you listen to English dont panic when you hear some words or expressions that you dont know. Keep listening and the overall meaning will often become clear.

When you read or listen to English it is sometimes possible to guess the meaning of a word you dont know before you look up or ask its meaning. Decide first what part of speech the word is and then look for clues in its context or form.

 

Before you read the text below, check whether you know what the underlined words mean.

 

A tortoise is a shelled reptile famed for its slowness and longevity.

The Giant Tortoise of the Galapagos may attain over 1.5 metres in length and have a lifespan of more than 150 years. Smaller tortoises from Southern Europe and North Africa make popular pets. They need to be tended carefully in cool climates and must have a warm place in which they can hibernate.

 

Which of the marked words can you perhaps guess from the context or from the way the word is formed? Guess and then check whether you were correct by using a dictionary. Some words are impossible to guess from context or the structure of the word. In such cases, ask someone or go to a dictionary for help.

N.B. Vocabulary study and practice is recommended in accordance with the number of the lesson in Keep up your English textbook.

 

Lesson 1

 

1. Fill in the missing verbs in the appropriate forms:

 

to rise / to arise / to raise

1. He his eyes and stared at the blank wall for a moment. 2. It was long after midnight when the guests to go. 3. Her voice to a scream.

4. When it came to practical things the usual difficulties . 5. The children and followed me out of the room. 6. Lets hope that such problems will not . 7. She felt a warm wave of sympathy within her. 8. The temperature to ten above zero. 9. Protests were and criticisms voiced.

 

to lie / lay

1. He down the hammer and picked up the handsaw. 2. I could see the cat in wait for its victim. 3. He the matter before the committee with all its pros and cons. 4. The poor fellow was up in hospital with another heart attack. 5. It was a mistake which him open to criticism.

6. He would around the whole day doing nothing and thinking nothing.

7. What he did amounted to killing the goose which... the golden eggs.

8. She down and fell asleep. 9. She down the baby carefully. 10. He fell asleep the moment he his head on the pillow. 11. Europe north of Africa. 12. He a hand on my shoulder and said softly: Are you Mr Brown? 13. Life in front of you. 14. If you dare a finger on her 15. They a tax / a duty on tea. 16. It with you to decide the question. 17. The trouble in engine. 18. They tried to the blame for the crime on me. 19. The hens are well now. 20. Lomonosov the foundation of Russian science. 21. Place it in a position. 22. bricks is a skilled job.

 

to keep / to preserve / to retain

1. In Britain there are many places which still their old Celtic names. 2. There are many ways of vegetables for the winter. 3. The manager succeeded in control over the company. 4. I dont like old clothes.

5. If you want to fit, exercise and eat vegetables as much as you can.

6. These manuscripts were in the library of the local museum.

 

to go / to leave / to quit / to clear out / to withdraw / to depart / to retire

1. The police are after you, youd better . 2. In accordance with the old English custom the ladies after dinner. 3. When it was time for him to , she said she would too. 4. In silence the widow . 5. Aunt Polly was from the field with a slipper in her hand and triumph in her eyes.

6. He repeated his apologies and the room. 7. He the laboratory with a sign of relief. 8. He tried many jobs but all of them. 9. What age do women in England? 10. The UN troops were eventually from the country.

 

to stay / to remain / to leave

1. We there much longer than we expected. 2. Few in the building after the alarm was given. 3. He could not in his silent lodging when they were gone. 4. The two girls would gladly have and helped the mother get dinner. 5. Andrew was inclined to ask himself why he and Christine had at Aberlaw since the death of their child. 6. Im afraid Ive no time to . 7. We decided to in the hotel till the end of the month.

8. He was alone in the house. 9. She silent. 10. Dont your things behind when you the train.

 

to stay / to remain / to linger

 

1. Food is one of my few pleasures, I am afraid. she said. With the dire consequences on my figure that you can see. Do have another helping of the pudding? 2. This is Song-Mi Lee, who came ten years ago from Korea on a Ford Foundation fellowship to sit at his feet as a research student and to become his secretary, companion and wife. 3. That delicious taste in my mouth for some time.

 

2. Translate into English using the following verbs according to the sense:

 

to stay / to remain / to linger

 

1. .

2. . 3. . 4. ? 5. , . 6. , , .

 

to raise / to pick / to lift / to heave / to hoist

 

1. - - , . 2. . 3. , . ? 4. , , .

5. .

 

3. Study the italicized words, discriminate between the shades of difference in their usage or in their meaning. Translate the sentences into Russian.

 

A. 1. The weather seems to be changing for the worse. 2. That should change her mind is out of the question. 3. Youd better change your tie. Its too loud for evening wear. 4. She had had the dress slightly altered and now it was good as new. 5. A change in the dates made him alter his arrangements for the holidays. 6. His opinions never seem to vary. 7. You should vary your diet.

B. 1. The mistake you made was quite an ordinary sort of mistake. Such mistakes are common enough among beginners. 2. I had never known him well, but he had always seemed to me an ordinary sort of person. 3. The general idea has been expressed clearly enough, its the details that bother me. 4. Hardly any criticism was voiced, just a few general remarks.

C. 1. Once he had been famous in the role of Othello. 2. John Dillinger was a notorious killer. 3. The whole town was agog waiting for the arrival of the celebrated singer. 4. It was a forum of the most distinguished men of science.

 

Lesson 2

 

1. Fill in the missing words:

 

sight / look / view / glance

1. The mere of the cobra made her sick. 2. It was clear by the of him that he was not quite himself. 3. We bought a small house with a of the mountains. 4. If you take a birds eye of the Cathedral, youll feel the splendour of its domes. 5. Do you believe in love at first ? 6. She gave me a . 7. She couldnt stand the of a dead man. 8. He could recognize her in the photo at a .

 

to bring / take / carry

1. Have you my suit to the cleaners? 2. You have the children sweets again. You are spoiling them. 3. this letter to Mr.Wells. The postman has made a mistake. 4. The students were asked to their newspaper clippings () to class. 5. Will you these books to the library? 6. The chocolates you.. last time were simply delicious. 7. Im afraid you will have to me. I think I have broken my leg. 8. Please your mirrors to class so that you can study the position of your lips. 9. This case is very handy for books. 10. This suit-case is very heavy. Im tired of it.

 

2. Use How does he (she, it, etc) look? What does he (she, it, etc.) look like? What is he (she, it, etc) like? in questions to which the following may serve as answers:

 

 

1. He is tall, thin and grey-haired. 2. The new secretary is very nice and polite. 3. He is sunburnt and has lost a little weight. 4. Jane is a very friendly person. 5. Our gym teacher is young and pretty. 6. Mr. Jones has aged considerably since his wifes death.

 

3. Group the sentences in the following passages matching them with the proper question: How does he / she look? What does he / she look like? What is he / she like? Translate the passages.

 

1. The girl was delicately-built, very slender, with full lips and deep-set eyes. They looked sad and made you feel sorry for her.

2. She was a lovely little girl of about five, plump, with an upturned nose and dimpled rosy cheeks. Her hazel eyes and silky long hair added to her attraction.

3. Melancholy and perplexed, the woman was sitting at the table. Her faded eyes were grave and she looked upset.

4. Cruel but very clever and shrewd, he was quite an extraordinary person.

5. Mark was dark-haired and romantically handsome, with his merry laugh and charm of the person who comes from this charming country, Spain.

6. Emily was full of anxiety. She was stubbornly British and didnt find India beautiful or exciting.

7. Rachel was a bit old-fashioned and she was sweet in a way. Her eyes were close-set and a little slanting but they didnt spoil her pale oval face.

8. He wasnt even that handsome: his proportions were wrong; he was too tall for his shoulders; his hair was too short; his arms were too long.

9. The immigration officer is wearing a dark-green uniform, like a soldiers, and there are two actual soldiers leaning against the wall beside him, in crisp blue shirts with short sleeves.

10. In front of Rennie theres a tiny woman, not five feet tall. Shes wearing a fur coat and a black wool jockey cap tilted at an angle. She must be at least seventy but its hard to tell.

11. He was like iron. All of us knew that he was not easily put off and that nothing could make him change his mind.

12. She was unable to control her jealousy, and her friends sometimes called her an Othello in spite of her being a woman.

13. Phil looked pretty exhausted. He had had no sleep the last night as he had a great deal to do in the hospital and could never find an hour or two to have a nap.

 

4. Translate into English using the following verbs according to the sense:

 

to encounter / to come across

1. : , , , . 2. , , .

 

5. Study the italicized words, discriminate between the shades of difference in usage or in their meaning. Translate the sentences into Russian.

 

A. 1. Ive got a surprise for you. Now shut your eyes and dont look.

2. An old man opened the door and peered at me shortsightedly. 3. She glared at them in impotent rage. 4. The child raised the lid and peeped inside the box. 5. The travellers had reached the top of the hill and were now gazing in wonder at the beautiful country lying at their feet. 6. He sat down opposite the living-room window and stared out of it as if at a vision of the past or future. 7. The crowd stood gaping. They had never seen a travelling circus.

B. 1. The boy shook the tree and the apples came failing down. 2. He trembled at the lions roar. 3. He was shivering with cold. 4. Her lips quivered. 5. His fingers trembled as he counted the money. 6. He shuddered at the prospect. 7. The puppy stood wobbling on its short rickety legs.

C. 1. His voice came strange and unfamiliar over the telephone. 2. Have you read the book by R.L. Stevenson The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde? 3. You will never mistake her. Shes got a very peculiar accent. 4. It was a quaint house with gable windows and turrets. 5. His behaviour struck us all as somewhat odd. 6. It was a queer sort of story. 7. Now she was facing the audience. She had a funny sinking feeling in her stomach as if she were falling through space. 8. What a singular remark! 9. They all agreed he was a man of rather singular habits. 10. Hes a curious fellow, to say the least. You never really know whats on his mind. 11. The two of them together was a curious sight. 12. As she looked about the room she had a curious feeling that she had been there before.

 

Lesson 3

 

1. Recast the following using word combinations with to make or to do instead of the verbs in bold type.

 

1. There were three mistakes in the students composition. 2. He translated the text in half an hour. 3. The dean spoke at the meeting of the first-year students. 4. Gardeners usually work out-of-doors. 5. The students drew the model who posed for them.

 

 

2. Fill in the missing verbs:

 

to make / to do

1. She the best of her charms to marry him. 2. It doesnt any sense. 3. He well at present. 4. I like the way she her hair. 5. He was a young writer and could hardly.. both ends meet. 6. He knew it was not the right way to his living. His marriage things worse. His wife tried to her best by her share of work about the house, but her efforts didnt seem to their marriage any good. 7. Nothing could her what she didnt want to. 8. That wont ! he exclaimed. 9. Two and two four. 10. I dont want him to have anything to with my daughter. He is no match for her, mother thought. 11. Its very important to a very good first impression on the parents and relatives.

 

to learn / to find out / to get to know

1. Ive never been in what you might call the swim, intellectually speaking. Thats why Ive come to this conference. To improve myself. To whats going on in the great world of ideas. Whos in and whos out and all that. So tell me about structuralism. 2. They offered help as soon as they of the accident. 3. She was extremely upset to that he had died. 4. She is a very sweet and giving person, you just have to her.

 

3. Translate into English using the following verbs according to the sense:

 

to make / to do

1. , . 2. , .

3. , .

4. 11. 5. . 6. ? .

7. . . 8. , - . 9. (sketches) .

to learn / to find out / to get to know

1. , , . 2. . , .

3. , , . 4. , .

 

to accept / to admit / to receive / to take

1. . 2. . 3. ! 4. . 5. ? 6. , . 7. . 8. . 9. , , .

10. .

 

to recognize / to admit / to acknowledge

1. , , , . 2. , . 4. . 5. , .

 

Lesson 4

1. Fill in the missing words:

 

to say / to tell / to speak

1. How many languages do you ? 2. The doctor (that) Philip should be taken to hospital. 3. You talk too much, Kenneth . 4. I cant hear what you are , louder. 5. Some parents believe that children should only when they are to. 6. I was not to.. a word to anybody. 7. Girls as a rule begin to much earlier than boys. 8. It was a joke he had twice that evening and we him so. 9. I wont to you any more if you dont the truth. 10. His English has improved. He more correctly and with greater ease. 11. Ill it once more and then Ill ask you to repeat it. 12. Have you anything to.. in your defence?

 

absent / out / away

1.When I called at Johns house, he was and his mother told me he would be home in half an hour. 2. Helen must be ill, she has been for more than a week, said the monitor. 3. Do you mind answering the telephone while I am , I expect an important call. Ill be back in ten minutes. 4. I was so sorry that my cousin was when I visited Kiev, I hadnt seen her for two years. 5. Why were you from the rehearsal yesterday? You wont be ready for the performance. 6. Im going shopping but I wont be long, please, give Jimmy his medicine while I am .

7. Angelica was from the first formal session of the conference the next morning. 8. Morris Zapp had been having a quiet evening. Mrs Zapp was doing good jobs, the two eldest children were from home at college and the youngest, Mathew was playing rhythm guitar in a school.

 

2. Change the parts in bold type in the following sentences using:

 

to be absent / to be away / to be out

1. The little girl did not attend school for a week because of a sore throat. 2. I am going to the Institute to see my teacher about my report. I dont expect to stay there long. 3. I was very much surprised to see the lights in their house, I knew they had all gone on their vacation. 4. I wonder where George can be, he left early in the morning and he has been gone the whole day. 5. The dean is here, he came an hour ago, but at the moment he isnt in his office.

 

3. Translate the following using the word talk in the correct form:

 

1. , , . 2. , , - . . 3. , . 4. ? 5. - ? 6. . .

 

4. Translate the following sentences using:

 

to be absent / to be away / to be out

1. , .

2. ? 3. : , , . 4. , . 5. , , . 6. , .

 

to finish / to be over / to graduate / to leave / to use up / to run out of / to end / to expire / to terminate

1. ? 2. , 12 . 3. , , . 4. , . 5. , . 6. , 15.

7. , , . , . 8. ? . 9. . 10. ? 11. 2005 . 12. . 13. 15.05. 14. , .

Lesson 5

 

1. Fill in the missing words:

 

to propose / to offer / to suggest

1. A year has passed since Nick to Kelly and she still hasnt given him any answer. 2. I we put off considering this question until the Senator arrives. 3. I you put an end to this affair. He is no match for you. 4. He to give her a lift. 5. The Father that they should celebrate Mothers Day out of town. 6. Two projects were for consideration.

 

to trouble / to worry / to be anxious / to be concerned

1. Most parents are about their childrens future. 2. May I.. you for a moment? 3. She was too to get the first prize. 4. Dont about it, youll be all right. 5. Queen Elizabeth is about some of the Prime Ministers actions. 6. What.. her is that her son has taken to drugs. 7. Theres nothing to about.

 

sense / feeling / sensation

1. He could sense the general of discontent among his listeners. He wondered about the reason. 2. A of injury persisted, though if asked to explain he would have hardly been able to put it into words. 3. She tried to rise, but she couldnt. There was a funny in her legs as if they werent quite her own. 4. He had a about the place, it was as if he belonged there. 5. As she watched her son take his seat among the other boys in the bus she was overwhelmed by a of loss, it was as if she would never be seeing him again. 6. To sit in the warmth of the camp fire was a very pleasant .

 

2. Translate into English using mean .

 

1. ? 2. . 3. , . 4. , . 5. ? ? 6. . 7. , . 8. ! ? 9. . , . 10. Ÿ . 11. , .

 

3. Study the italicized words, discriminate between the shades of difference in their usage or in their meaning. Translate the sentences into Russian.

 

A. 1. You mustnt disturb a person when hes sleeping. 2. The loud cries from the street disturbed his train of thoughts. 3. Shes always worrying. She never has a moment of peace. 4. Dont worry! Everything will be all right in the end. 5. He kept worrying about the outcome of the game. 6. I was sorry t o trouble him about such a minor affair but there didnt seem to be any other way out. 7. You neednt bother your head about such things. 8. They were bothered by mosquitoes. 9. For once he didnt bother to think of an excuse.

B. 1. The island was yet to be explored. 2. It was his task to explore the possibilities of the invention. 3. The case was investigated by the police. 4. The doctor examined the patient carefully. 5. The matter was examined from every possible angle.

 

Lesson 6

1. Choose the proper word:

 

to occur / to chance / to happen / to befall

1. It was the worst thing that had ever to him. 2. Storms often in this part of the ocean in winter. 3. This particular conversation was reported to have yesterday at 5 p.m. 4. He wondered how they could justify this new relationship to his family, should they to hear about it. 5. The day.. to fall on the anniversary of his wifes death. 6. She realized that some crushing misadventure had her son. 7. All memorable events in morning time and in a morning atmosphere. 8. Its so that they had met before.

 

un(comfortable) / in(convenient)

1. It is to phone him so late. 2. The beds in this hotel are very , soft and wide. 3. Sit down and make yourself . 4. Come whenever it is for you. 5. Martin Eden felt in his new suit. 6. We have to choose a day for the excursion that is for everybody. 7. I dont think it is to ask him to lend us some money, after all he hardly knows us.

 

2. a) Supply the correct item for each situation.

 

M o d e l: Student 1: What would you say about a sofa that is soft and cosy?

Student 2: It is a comfortable sofa.

Student 2: What would you say about an instrument that can be used in a number of operations?

Student 3: It is a convenient instrument.

 

W h a t w o u l d y o u s a y?

 

1. about an hour (time) of the day that was chosen to suit you? 2. about a place that was chosen because of its suitable location? 3. about shoes that cause no pain, that do not pinch? 4. about a desk that has a number of handy drawers? 5. about a can opener that works quickly and easily? 6. about trousers that do not cause discomfort, that are not tight? 7. about a large and spacious wall closet? 8. about an ironing board that is easy to use? 9. about a hard bed? 10. about a cosy armchair? 11. about a good spring mattress?

 

b) Answer the following questions using (un) comfortable or (in)convenient

M o d e l: Student 1: Why dont you wear your white shoes?

Student 2: Because they are uncomfortable.

Student 2: Why dont you ring him up from your office?

Student 3: Because it is inconvenient.

 

1. Why do you keep your dictionaries on the desk and not in the bookcase? 2. Why did you sell your kitchen stools? 3. Why do people prefer to travel by metro? 4. Why does your father always wear this old jacket?

5. Why dont you study at home; why do you go to the library?

 

3. Study the phrases with mind . Use them in sentences of your own.

1. He showed great presence of mind in handling the situation. 2. I very much feel like giving the fellow a piece of my mind. 3. To my mind a job well started is half done. 4. They say that great minds run in the same channels. 5. It takes him hours to make up his mind about the simplest things. 6. She felt disturbed and found it difficult to keep her mind on her work. 7. I do hope you keep in mind my advice. 8. You dont look the thing this morning. Whats on your mind? 9. In discussions of this sort you should always keep an open mind. 10. First she thought shed wear blue but then changed her mind in favor of pink. 11. Out of sight, out of mind. 12. You must admit that you have failed. The sooner you make up your mind to it, the better. 13. Youve had time enough to decide what you want. Dont you know your own mind? 14. He seems to have set his mind on becoming an architect.

 

Lesson 7

 

1. Study the phrases with time . Use them in sentences of your own.

1. He took his time over the answer. He was afraid to say the wrong thing. 2. I didnt get to the station in time to catch the six oclock train.

3. Youll forget about it in time. 4. The trouble with names has put me in difficulties from time to time. 5. He was all the time waiting for something to happen. 6. The doctor encouraged his patient, though all the time he knew there was hardly any hope for her. 7. Now that you mention her name, I know who she is, though I didnt recognize her at the time. 8. The boy was very slow in answering my questions. He must have been playing for time. 9. At times she would be inattentive and forgetful. 10. I should advise you to leave things as they are for the time being. 11. The plane arrived on time.

12. We were to enter the room one at a time.

 

2. Translate the following into English using time or phrases with time .

 

1. , . 2. . 3. . 4. . - . 5. , , ? 6. . 7. . 8. . 9. . 10. ! 11. , .

12. . 13. ? , . 14. . ?

 

3. Study the italicized words, discriminate between the shades of difference in their usage or in their meaning. Translate the sentences into Russian.

 

A. 1. She made no special effort to entertain her guests but they seemed to be happy enough. 2. The story amused us greatly. 3. He was charmed by the house, the beautiful garden and, above all, by the landlady, a comely old woman with a delightful sense of humour. 4. There was no pleasing the woman.

B. 1. He said he would have a snack in town. 2. We invited our neighbour to take potluck with us. 3. If you want to stay healthy, you must take your meals regularly. 4. Shed only had a bite earlier in the day and now she felt terribly hungry. 5. The repast over, the ladies rose to go to the drawing-room. 6. There would be no dinner, only refreshment at the party.

C. 1. The party trudged along in the heavy snow. 2. He walked up the street with a brisk jaunty step. 3. I could hear him pacing up and down the room. 4. The boy sauntered up, his hands in his pockets, his head cocked on one side. 5. He stalked out in a passion. 6. They strolled with the other holiday-makers along the embankment. 7. He strutted about proud as a peacock.

D. 1. As the English put it, enough i s as good as a feast. 2. A person whose needs are satisfied has enough, but when his needs are supplied he has sufficient. 3. Three meals a day are sufficient, but not enough for some people.

 

 

Appendix

SUMMARY AND ESSAY WRITING

 

Summary

A summary (sometimes called a précis) is a concise presentation that gives key information about an article, an event, a TV program or a movie, or an oral presentation. Effective summaries help a reader or listener quickly understand the main purpose, content, and structure of an original work.

Summaries take many forms and appear in a variety of situations. They can be brief (as short as one sentence) or lengthy (several pages long). If it is a written work, it is approximately one third the length of the text. Summaries may be oral or written. Whether a summary is based on a book, a videotape, a lecture, or a personal experience, the basic goal is the same: to compress a broad range of information into a few well-chosen words.

Summarizing involves a combination of reading, study and writing skills. To write an effective summary, you must identify the main ideas and key details in the original work. You must also translate the original information into your own words. Putting complex information into your own words helps you understand and remember the main ideas of the original work.

If you are asked to write a summary of a written work, begin by previewing the text. To preview an article, look at the title, subtitle, introductory and final paragraphs, headings and subheadings. To preview a book, look at the title, table of contents, preface, first and last chapters, chapter openers and summaries, and any photographs and illustrations.

After previewing the text, read the work thoroughly. As you read, jot down or highlight main ideas and key details. Pay special attention to topic sentences, defined terms, examples, and lists of items (called enumerations); these features often contain important information.

As soon as you finish reading, write a sentence that expresses the central point of the work.

If you are summarizing a written work, such as a book or an article, your first sentence should identify the author, title, publisher, date of publication, and central point of the work.

Assume that readers know little if anything about the original work you are summarizing. Always include enough information to convey the central point and main ideas.

Depending on the content and on the tone of the original work, the tone you adopt may be informal or very formal. If you summarize a humorous article, you should use an informal tone to indicate to the reader that the article was humorous. Similarly, if you summarize a serious article, you should use a factual, objective tone to reflect the substance of the original work.

The language you use for a summary should reflect but not copy or imitate the wording of the original. The wording you use should always be your own. If you use another writers words and try to pass them off as your own, you will be plagiarizing. If you quote directly from the original source, do so sparingly. Dont use more than two quotations in a single paragraph of your summary.

To sum it up, a summary is a shorter version of a text which:

a) contains the main idea or topic of the text;

b) contains the important supporting details of the text (A supporting detail is a fact or example that helps to explain the main idea);

c) doesnt contain any of the readers opinions (whereas an essay assumes an individual interpretation of facts, giving a writer a chance of self-expression);

d) is approximately one third the length of the text;

e) contains no introductions or conclusions;

f) should not contain illustrative details, ideas expressed in a figurative language, repetitions, colorless words like: character, nature, case, manner, kind, sort, etc.

E.g. In spite of the fact is substituted by Although, Of a courageous character by Courageous, etc.

g) sentences must be re-phrased and re-arranged.

 

Essay Writing

 

AN ESSAY is a piece of writing, usually short and in prose, on any subject. It usually assumes an individual interpretation of facts, giving the writer a chance of self-expression. According to the subject matter and the treatment it receives, essay may be divided into three main types: narrative, descriptive and reflective. The division is by no means clear-cut because most essays have features characteristic of not one particular type, but of several.

a ) A narrative essay is a description of happenings as they follow one another. It is the easiest to write because the material is arranged according to the actual course of events; one knows where to start and what to do next, each paragraph being devoted to one particular episode or group of episodes.

E.g. You have decided to write about a hitch-hiking holiday. It is advisable first to write down a plan with paragraph headings: 1. What made my friend and me decide on a hitch-hiking holiday. 2. Preparations. 3. The holidays: a) setting off, b)the most interesting, amusing or memorable event: 1), 2), 3) 4. Home again. Some thoughts on the advantages of such a holiday.

As an essay rarely belongs to one type only, in addition to describing events in chronological order, you are expected to express your views on the subject as well. Your narrative will also include short descriptions of people and places. For example, you might want to describe an impressive view, a lively scene or a person you met during your holiday. But your descriptions and reflections should not occupy too much space in relation to the rest of the essay. Take care to preserve the necessary balance.

Narrative essays bear a close resemblance to those short stories in which the author describes events as he himself has experienced them. In fact, practically all narrative essays could be classed as short stories.

b) A descriptive essay describes people and places at rest. It is more difficult to write because the order in which your ideas follow one another is determined not by the sequence of events, but rather by certain qualities of your ideas and the logical connection between them. You must try to give your essay a clear and logical shape, whether you start from the general and work towards particular or vice versa.

c ) Reflective and argumentative essays are slightly different. The first one is primarily an exercise in contemplation upon any given subject, the second - an exercise testing your ability to discuss a problem, to argue for or against a proposition. In the first you rely more on your imagination, in the second on general knowledge.

Compared with the descriptive and the narrative essays, these are more difficult to write, not only it is more difficult to arrange ones ideas logically, but also because one has to devote more thought and time to the collection of ideas relevant to the subject. Here a plan is essential. The best way is probably to jot down ideas as they come into your head. Then you can try to group them together and arrange them in the order best suited to your purpose.

You can write reflective essays developing the thoughts through analysis, i.e. you start by breaking out the subject into parts, then group the various ideas together and finally arrange them in a suitable order. The greatest amount of space is generally allotted to the description of the authors own thoughts, feelings, behaviour, etc.

Another type of organization is development by contrast. You organize your pros and cons in separate sections. The main problem in this case is that in the second part you have to remind your readers occasionally about the items contained in the first part. You may contrast pairs instead of sections throughout the essay.

Development by contrast is the most forceful means of writing an argumentative essay.

 

Assignment:

Read examples of the essays below, try to define which of the types each of them belongs to.

 

ON BEGINNING

 

(By J.B.Priestly)

How difficult it is to make a beginning. I speak of essay-writing, an essentially virtuous practice, and not of breaking the ten commandments. It is much easier to begin, say, a review or an article than it is to begin an essay, for with the former you attach yourself to something outside yourself, you have an excuse for writing and therefore have more courage. If it is a review that has to be written, well, there, waiting for you, inviting your comment, is the book. Similarly with an article, you have your subject, something that everybody is excited about, and thus you know what is expected of you and you can take up your pen with a light heart. But to have nothing to cling hold of, to have no excuse for writing at all, to be compelled to spin everything out of oneself, to stand naked and shivering in the very first sentence one puts down, is clearly a very different matter, and this is the melancholy situation in which the essayist always finds himself. It is true that he need not always be melancholy; if he is full of himself, brimming over with bright talk, in a mood to take the whole world into his confidence, the essayist will find his task a very pleasant one indeed, never to be exchanged for such drudges work as reviews and articles; and he will step briskly on to the stage and posture in the limelight without a tremor. But such moments are rare, and the essayist at ordinary times, though he would eagerly undertake to defend his craft, cannot quite rid himself of the feeling that there is something both absurd and decidedly impudent in this business of talking about oneself for money; this feeling haunts the back of his mind like some gibbering spectre, and it generally produces one of three effects. According to his temperament, it will prevent him from doing anything at all that particular day or perhaps any other day, or it will allow him to write a few brilliant opening sentences and then shut up, or it will keep him from making a start until the last possible moment.

For my own part, I am one of those who find it difficult to begin; I stand on the brink for hours, hesitating to make the plunge; I will do anything but the work in hand. This habit is certainly a nuisance, but perhaps it is not quite so intolerable as that of some other persons, men of my acquaintance, who fall into the second category mentioned above and always find themselves making dashing openings and then coming to a stop. They will stare at what they have written, well pleased with it as an opening, and then discover that the flow has ceased, and horrible hours will pass, and perhaps many more dashing openings will have been made, before any real progress will have come about and their essay taken some sort of shape. Such writers seem to me even more unfortunate than I am, for I do at least go forward once I have made a beginning; as soon as I have summoned up courage to ring the bell I am at least admitted into the house of my choice, and am not, like these others, left kicking my heels in the vestibules of half a dozen houses perhaps without ever seeing the interior of any of them.

 

N o t e s

 

the ten commandments the ten Mosaic laws: thou shalt not kill; thou shalt not commit adultery; thou shalt not steal; thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour, etc. (The Bible, Exodus, Ch.20).

 

 





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