Climax is stylistic device consists in arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it increases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration. In order to create antithesis (paradox or oxymoron) we use antonyms or their contextual equivalents. In climax we deal with string of synonyms or at least semantically related words. The special organization of the utterance (or text) increases its stylistic effect and impact on the addressee.
E.g.: I am sorry, I am so sorry, I am so extremely sorry.
Гарний, чудовий, пречудовий – незрівнянний, божественний.
The stylistic device of climax may be of two opposite types. The first one is the utterance or string of utterances in which each next word combination (clause, sentence) is logically or emotionally more important, stronger or explicit, as in the following example:
I am firm, thou art obstinate, he is pig-headed (B.Charlstone).
The second type of structures participating in the formation of climax is characterized by the reversed, descending order of its components, as in the following example:
No tree, no shrub, no blade of grass that was not owned (J. Galsworthy).
The relative (contextual) synonyms are arranged not in the ascending but in the descending order: according to the importance or emotional colouring, quality or quantity expressed by them.
Climax suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought that defeats expectations of the reader (listener) and ends in a complete semantic reversal of the idea is called anticlimax. This sudden break in the semantic order, logical or emotional significance of the components is often indicated by emphatic punctuation, as, for example a dash in writing and intonation, pause in oral speech:
He was inconsolable – for an afternoon (J. Galsworthy).
In moments of utter crisis my nerves act in the most extraordinary way. When utter disaster seems imminent, my whole being is simultaneously brazed to avoid it. I size up the situation in a flash, set my teeth, contract my muscles, take a firm grip of myself, and without a tremor always do the wrong thing (B. Charlestone).
Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything except the obvious (O. Wild).
Anticlimax is closely connected with paradox. A lot of witty sayings and proverbs, jokes and anecdotes are based on both paradox and anticlimax.
Zeugma and Pun
Zeugma and pun are stylistic devices which consist in play on words and operate on the linguistic mechanism of polysemy: the realization of different meanings of one and the same word, or the principle of semantic incompatibility of language units used in the utterance. The effect of these stylistic devices is humorous. Both of them are highly characteristic for English prose and poetry.
Zeugma and pun are very alike from semantic point of view. But they differ structurally.
A zeugmatic construction consists of at least three constituents. The basic word (as a rule a polysemantic verb) of it stands in the same grammatical but different semantic relation to a couple of adjacent words. In a lot of cases polysemantic verbs, that have practically unlimited lexical valency and can be combined with nouns of most varying semantic groups, are deliberately connected with two or more homogeneous members which cannot be combined semantically:
E.g.: He took his hat and his leave (Ch. Dickens).
The humoristic effect occurs as a result of contradiction between the similarity of the two syntactic structures and their semantic heterogeneity.
Pun is a variant of zeugma. But pun is more independent structurally. It does not need a basic component like in zeugma. It is just play on words based either upon polysemy or homonymy.
E.g.: Visitor to a little boy:
- Is your mother engaged?
- Engaged? She is already married!
Хай їй грець, тій Греції!
Нагору вилізши звелів собі:”Гори!”. І злізти вже не міг до ближніх із гори (Б.Кравців).
Punning may be the result of the intended violation of listener’s expectations, phonetic or grammatical rules:
There comes a period in every man’s life, but she is just a semicolon in his (B.Evans).
Йде сніг.
З моїм дівчам під руку.
Назустріч – я.
Сніг падає (В. Слапчук).
The principle of play on words is the ground of other subtypes of above discussed stylistic devices. When the number of homogeneous members, semantically disconnected, but attached to the same verb, increases, we deal with semantically false chains. As a rule it is the last word of the chain that falls out of the semantic group, defeating our expectancy and producing humorous effect:
E.g.: A Governess wanted. Must possess knowledge of Romanian, Russian, Italian, Spanish, German, Music and Mining Engineering.
Little John was born with a silver spoon in his mouth which was rather curly and large (J. Galsworthy).
Sometimes the speaker (writer) interferes into the structure of a word attributing homonymous meaning to individual morphemes, as in the case of so-called pseudo-etymology:
E.g. professorship – a ship full of professors, relying 0 telling the same story again, beheld – to have somebody hold you, etc.
Zeugma, pun, semantically false chains are the most resortful ways to create short, witty and wise aphorisms which are not only humorous but help to look at things differently:
The books and lectures are better sorrow-drowners than drink and fornication, they leave no headache (A. Huxley).
Most are accepters, born and bred to harness, and take things as they come (L. Macneice).
Pity this busy monster manunkind not (E. Cummings).
I believed all men were brothers; she though all men were husbands. I gave the whole mess up (J. Barth).
Все квапимось із ніколи в ніколи (Л. Костенко).
…зустрічаючись
ми запитуємо одні в одних
котра година
ми всі маємо годинники
а гадаємо що маємо час (В. Слапчук).
Conclusion
Tropes (figures of speech) are the complex system of stylistic devices which for the purpose of scientific analysis can be classified into two main groups: figures of substitution (lexical stylistic devices) and figures of combination (lexico-syntactic stylistic devices). The firs group consists of figures of quality (metaphor, metonymy, epithet, antonomasia, allegory, personification, irony) and figures of quality (hyperbole, meiosis, litotes). Tropes that belong to this group are created on the bases of substitution of one meaning of a word for another as well as interaction between its logical (dictionary) and contextually imposed meaning or any other semantic operation that lead to the change of word meaning.
The second group includes figures of identity (simile), of contrast (oxymoron, antithesis, paradox) and of inequality (climax, anticlimax, zeugma and pun). The stylistic function of lexico-syntactic stylistic devices is to add logical, emotive, expressive information not to a single word but to the whole utterance. The emphasis here depends both on the lexico-semantic aspect of the words that participate in the creation of tropes and on the specific arrangement of utterance components.
Tropes perform aesthetic and cognitive function. They are indispensable means of creating images within the structure of a literary text and foregrounding a certain notion by highlighting its specific characteristics. Tropes help to approach the understanding of a certain notion, object, phenomenon through the image of it. In other words tropes are the means of imagery world perception (образного сприйняття світу). They are the powerful instruments by which the human thought is created and shaped.
The source of tropeic language is mythology, religeon and folklore of the nation.
