LECTURE 2
LITERATURE IN THE DARK AGES
(OLD ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD)
There is a vast expanse of time (six centuries) before the Norman Conquest in 1066, from which fragments of literary texts remain, although these fragments make quite a substantial body of work. If we consider that the same expanse of time has passed between Shakespeare’s time and now as passed between the earliest text and 1066, we can begin to imagine just how much literary expression there must have been. But these centuries remain largely dark to us apart from a few illuminating flashes. The Dark Ages is the label historians used to apply to the centuries after the Roman legions left Britain. With the departure of the Romans, civilization literally departed as well. If any written records of this time were made, virtually none has survived, and to this day we can only guess at exactly who did what to whom from 410 until nearly 600.
Old English literature is part of English literature, and some of it deserves discussion here on literary merit. Besides merit, it needed luck, the luck to be committed to writing, and to survive. The Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes were illiterate /ɪˈlɪt 
ər ɪt/: their orally-composed verses were not written unless they formed part of runic inscriptions. The Britons passed on neither literacy nor faith to their conquerors. The English learned to write only after they had been converted to Christ by missionaries sent from Rome in 597. Strictly, there is no Old English writing that is not Christian, since the only literates were clerics.
Christian monks and nuns were, in effect, the guardians of culture, as they were virtually the only people who could read and write before the fourteenth century. It is interesting therefore that most of the native English culture they preserved is not in Latin, the language of the church, but in Old English, the language of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.
The spread of Anglo-Saxon, then English, as a language was one of the most significant elements, over several centuries, in molding a national identity out of all the cultural and linguistic influences which the country underwent. Icelandic and Viking, Latin and French, Germanic and Celtic – as well as many local linguistic, cultural, and social forces – were all part of the Anglo-Saxon melting pot which would eventually become English: the language of England, then of Britain.
Literature is as old as human language, and as new as tomorrow’s sunrise. It starts with words, and with speech. The first literature in any culture is oral.
In English, the first signs of oral literature tend to have three kinds of subject matter – religion, war, and the trials of daily life – all of which continue as themes of a great deal of writing.
All the texts in the oral tradition in Anglo-Saxon literature are poetry. It would be a mistake to think that oral poetry would be inartistic. Oral poetry was an art which had developed over generations: an art of memorable speech. Its audience appreciated a richly varied style and storytelling technique. As written versions of compositions that were originally oral, these poems are of the same kind as the poems of Homer, although less monumental and less central to later literature.
Oral composition was not meant to be written. Poetry was entertainment! A poem was a social act, like telling a story today, not a thing which belonged to its performer. For a Saxon to write down his vernacular /vərˈnæk yə lər/ poems would be like having personal anecdotes privately printed.
Old English poetry, meant to be sung or chanted to simple musical accompaniment.
The scop defined the values of society by glorifying honourable deeds and criticizing unacceptable actions. The scop was no common performer. He was a man of status /ˈsteɪ təs/. In this time when property was equated with power, the scop could inherit land, hold the land himself, or pass it down to his children.
The texts of Anglo-Saxon poetry were written down probably many years after they were first performed. What they have in common is their verse form, a double line with a break in the middle (called the caesura /sɪˈʒʊər ə/, from the Latin). This gives the verse its distinctive rhythm, which the scop would use in performing the text for his audience.
Free oral improvisation in a set form requires a repertory /ˈrɛp ərˌtɔr i/ of formulaic /ˌfɔr myəˈleɪ ɪk/ units. The style is rich in formulas, often noun-phrases. These figurative descriptions are known as kennings.
In the best kennings, one element of the phrase will create a striking, unexpected comparison. Often used in Anglo-Saxon poetry a kenning provides powerful imagery that would help the audience focus on the words of the scop or poet telling the story. A kenning also allows the scop some variety, words don’t become overused. Finally, Anglo-Saxon poetry depended heavily on alliteration, and some kennings provided additional alliteration. Here are examples from Beowulf:
The word ‘to ken’ is still used in many Scottish and Northern English dialects, meaning ‘to know’. Such language is a way of knowing and of expressing meanings in striking and memorable ways; it has continuities/ˌkɒn tnˈu ɪ ti/ with the kinds of poetic compounding found in nearly all later poetry but especially in the Modernist texts of Gerard Manley Hopkins and James Joyce.
About 30,000 lines of Old English verse survive, in four main poetry manuscripts/ˈmæn yəˌskrɪpt/. These were written about the year 1000, but contain earlier material. Many of the manuscripts which perished in the 1530s in Henry VIII's destruction of the monasteries may have been in Old English.
Beowulf is a remarkable survivor, the greatest monument of Anglo-Saxon poetry. Its text exists in a single medieval manuscript, housed at the British Library in London.
Beowulf is the oldest epic poem of the Teutonic /tuˈtɒn ɪk/ race. Nobody knows for certain when the poem was first composed. The manuscript bears no date, so it is perhaps understandable that the time of composition of Beowulf cannot be accurately pinned down. Opinions among critics and scholars vary from the sixth to the eleventh century. The most likely time for Beowulf to have been copied is the early 11th century, which makes the manuscript approximately 1,000 years old. This is an area of study where there is much controversy and debate – and no consensus.
Beowulf is set in the pagan world of sixth-century Scandinavia, but it also contains echoes of Christian tradition. The poem must have been passed down orally over many generations, and modified by each successive scop, until the existing copy was made at an unknown location in Anglo-Saxon England.
As you see, Beowulf disappeared from English literature until the manuscript, already damaged by the fire, was first noticed in 1786 and was not transcribed and published until 1815. Beowulf did not begin to play a role in the history of English literature before the nineteenth century. Along with most other Anglo-Saxon poetry it was effectively lost to Chaucer and the English poets who succeeded him. Centuries had passed before Beowulf’s glorious reappearance among the greatest masterpieces of English literature.
This poem of 3182 lines written in alliterative verse describes the deeds of the Teutonic hero Beowulf. There are two major versions of the meaning of the name Beowulf. The first one claims that in Old English the name Beowulf literally means "bee-wolf" or "bee-hunter" and that it is a kenning for "bear". The second one argues that in Anglo-Saxon Beowulf is a variant of a "war wolf".
Let’s learn the story of Beowulf which for early Anglo-Saxons was a tale more spine-chilling than anything Stephen King could come up with today.
Hrothgar, the King of the Danes, built a magnificent mead /mid/ an alcoholic liquor made by fermenting honey and water медове вино, медовуха hall, called Heorot, where his warriors could gather to drink, receive gifts from their lord, and listen to stories sung by the scops, or bards.
While the Danes were eating and drinking in this famous hall,
Grendel, a monster half-human, came from the moor, burst in upon them, murdered thirty warriors, and then rushed off into the darkness. For twelve years this monster attacked the warriors whenever they feasted in the hall, until the bravest were afraid to enter it.
Beowulf heard of the troubles at Heorot and decided to help Hrothgar. Inspired by the challenge, he sailed with his 14 best warriors to Heorot.
Hrothgar, who had once done a great favor for Beowulf’s father, accepted Beowulf’s offer to fight Grendel and held a feast in the hero’s honor. The feast in Heorot lasted merrily into the night. After a while the hall settled into sleep, but Beowulf stayed awake, waiting for Grendel.
Grendel arrived at Heorot as usual, hungry for flesh. He seized the warrior and ate him up in a few mouthfuls. Since no weapons could harm Grendel, Beowulf had to fight the monster bare-handed, and the other warriors were unable to come to Beowulf’s aid. When Grendel reached for Beowulf, the fearless warrior grabbed Grendel's arm and didn't let go.
Together they wrestled up and down the hall. In their mad contest they overturned the tables and made the vast hall tremble as if it were in the shocks of an earthquake. Finally Beowulf, with a grip like that of thirty men, tore the arm and shoulder of the monster. Mortally wounded, Grendel escaped back into the swamp to die. The severed /ˈsɛv ər/ arm was hung high in the mead-hall as a trophy of victory.
The next morning, there was a celebration in Heorot. Warriors came from far-off lands. Some of them traced Grendel’s retreat to the lake, boiling with his blood. On the way back to Heorot, a scop recounted the story of Beowulf’s victory.
At night a banquet /ˈbæŋ kwɪt/ was given in fateful Heorot in honour of the hero. Hrothgar praised Beowulf and rewarded him and his men with treasure.
The Queen of the Danes, presented many golden treasures to Beowulf, such as necklaces, cups, and rings. Soon the feast ended, and the warriors slept peacefully in the hall, but another threat was approaching.
Beowulf went to the palace. He had been gone for a short time, when Grendel’s mother rushed into Heorot to avenge the death of her son Grendel.
She escaped, taking Esher, Hrothgar’s dearest friend. When Beowulf returned to the hall, he found Hrothgar in mourning for his friend. The king told Beowulf where the creatures like Grendel live - in a shadowy, fearful land within the moors.
Beowulf persuaded Hrothgar to lead him and his own men to the bloody lake, the abode of Grendel and his mother.
The men discoved Esher’s head on a cliff above the lake. When they reached the edge of the moors, Unferth, a Danish warrior, gave Beowulf a magical sword called Hrunting.
This sword possessed great powers and had never failed anyone who had used it in battle.
Beowulf dived into the lake.
After a long time, Beowulf reached the bottom of the lake, where Grendel's mother was waiting to attack. The battle began.
Beowulf discovered that his sword had lost its powers and was ineffective against the monster. In the heat of battle, he noticed a gigantic sword and killed Grendel’s mother with it by slicing off her head. Still in a rage, Beowulf found the dead body of Grendel and cut off his head as a trophy.
When the men onshore saw blood rise to the surface of the lake, they assumed Beowulf had been killed, and the Danes returned to Herot. The Geats waited sadly, believing the worst. Beowulf’s magical sword melted like wax from the strong poison in Grendel's blood, but he returned to shore with the hilt and the monster’s head, leaving behind massive amounts of treasure.
Beowulf and the Geats took their “terrible trophy” to Herot.
Beowulf offered the magical sword’s hilt to Hrothgar, who honoured him, gave him advice on being a king and warned Beowulf against pride and selfishness. A grand feast followed to honour the hero and liberation of Danish lands from terrible monsters. After receiving much praise and many priceless treasures Beowulf and his men sailed home.
The Geats returned with much rejoicing to their homeland, where their king Higlac and his queen Herdred greeted them. Beowulf told his lord about the adventures at Herot. Hygelac praised Beowulf for his bravery and gave him half the kingdom. They ruled the kingdom together in peace and prosperity. Higlac was killed in a battle soon after, so Beowulf became king of the Geats and ruled the kingdom well.
He had been a good and generous king for 50 years when a thief woke up a fire-breathing dragon by taking a precious cup which the dragon had guarded for three hundred years. Unable to find the thief, the enraged dragon in revenge destroyed Geatland.
Beowulf blamed himself for the tragedy, thinking he must have somehow had broken God’s law. He prepared to go to battle against the dragon, recalling his past successes for motivation. Sensing his own death approaching, Beowulf went to fight the dragon.
During the battle, Beowulf’s shield was melted and his sword was broken. His warriors ran away. Wiglaf, a young relative and a faithful liegeman /ˈlidʒ mən/-a loyal supporter, follower of Beowulf was the only man of Beowulf's band to overcome his fear of the dragon. He rebuked the Geats for their desertion of Beowulf and went to Beowulf’s aid crying words of encouragement. When Beowulf wounded the dragon a second time, striking so hard his sword shattered, Wiglaf struck at the open wound with his own sword, tearing at the dragon's throat so it could no longer breathe fire. His hand was badly burned, but his attack allowed Beowulf to advance and kill the dragon.
Together they succeeded in defeating the beast, but at a heavy cost.
The dragon bit Beowulf in the neck, and its fiery venom killed him moments after their encounter.
Dying without an heir, Beowulf named Wiglaf, the only one of his men who dared to face the dragon with him, his successor.
A great and noble King had fallen, and the Geats feared that their enemies would attack them after Beowulf’s death.
According to Beowulf’s wishes, the Geats burnt their departed king’s body on a huge funeral pyre.Beowulf, who often had endured iron showers of enemy arrows, was endured by fire. Then Beowulf was buried with a massive treasure in a barrow a large mound of earth or stones over the remains of the dead overlooking the sea.
So passed away the greatest hero of the Teutonic race:
For he was of all men the worthiest warrior
Beowulf can be read in many ways: as myth; as territorial history of the Baltic kingdoms in which it is set; as forward-looking reassurance. Questions of history, time and humanity are at the heart of it: it moves between past, present, and hope for the future, and shows its origins in oral tradition. It is full of human speech and sonorous images, and of the need to resolve and bring to fruition a proper human order, against the enemy – whatever it be – here symbolized by a monster and a dragon, among literature’s earliest ‘outsiders’. Beowulf suggests what a hero is, and how important the hero is as a focus of public attention and admiration.
Beowulf is the beginning of a heroic tradition, emphasising strength and the territorial imperative. Power, and the battles to achieve and hold on to power, are a main theme of literature in every culture – as is the theme of transience and mortality. Beowulf is, at the same time, a poem of praise for ‘valour and venturous deeds’, a tragedy, since the hero inevitably dies, and an elegy, since it recalls heroic deeds and times now past.
..In structure, Beowulf is divided chronologically into two main sections: one that focuses on Beowulf as a young man and one that focuses on him as an old man. In terms of action, it is divided into three main sections: one that introduces the characters and describes Beowulf's battle with Grendel, one that tells about Beowulf's defeat of Grendel's mother, and one that gives a picture of Beowulf's victory over the dragon.
/ɒmˈnɪʃ ənt/-having complete or unlimited knowledge, awareness, or understanding; perceiving all things; всезнаючий розповідач
розповідач
оповідач
The narrator of Beowulf recounts the story in the third person, from a generally objective standpoint—detailing the action that occurs. The narrator does, however, have access to every character’s depths. We see into the minds of most of the characters (even Grendel). Generally speaking, Beowulf is a third person omniscient type of narrative.
The narrative also moves forward and backward in time with considerable freedom. That is to say the poet uses a literary device called anachrony /əˈnæk rə ni/.
/proʊˈlɛp sɪs/ /səˈspɛns/-Pleasurable excitement and anticipation regarding an outcome
Early in the poem, as the poet narrates how King Hrothgar gives orders for men to construct a splendid royal hall, he pauses suddenly and announces that in future years this monument to Danish power, splendour, and prosperity will be destroyed by fire when blood feud - a bitter, continuous hostility - breaks out in the royal family. Again, at the celebration of Beowulf’s victory over the monster Grendel, the Danish Queen presents the hero with a magnificent golden neck-ring of legendary beauty, but at this joyous moment the poet leaps forward in time and says that the golden neck-ring will on a future occasion be involved in one of the greatest disasters ever to befall Beowulf’s nation. The function and significance of suchlike glances to the future throughout Beowulf is to show that in the ancient heroic world no triumph is lasting and even men’s greatest accomplishments cannot escape the doom that overhangs all.
/,ənə’lepsis/
The poet leaves the poem’s present time occasionally to invoke some past event or personage /ˈpɜr sə nɪdʒ/. Sometimes this seems to be for the purpose of exalting the persons and events of the narrative by suggesting that they partake of a rich, legendary past and are comparable with immemorial heroes and deeds. Hrothgar’s scop recalls the legendary dragon-slayer – Sigemund or his son Siegfried – in celebrating Beowulf’s victory over Grendel, implying that Beowulf has earned a place among the most honored of Germanic heroes.
At the beginning of the poem Hrothgar’s superior status is established by a retrospective account of his illustrious ancestors. Allusions to the past can also be for the purpose of citing negative examples.
In addition, flashbacks are used to balance events along the storyline. The beautiful description of Scyld's funeral (the legendary ancestor of the Danish royal lineage) suggests a beginning and is the symbol of a glorious future. In contrast, Beowulf's funeral symbolizes the end of a glorious past while the future threatens with dangers.
This is another Germanic rhetorical device which is prominent in Beowulf and which modern scholars call “the envelope pattern”.
In organizing the narrative of Beowulf, the poet relied heavily on ring composition.
/kaɪˈæz məs/-хіазм, зворотній паралелізм
Ring composition of this type serves as a way of building up short verse paragraphs. It also underlies the composition of whole episodes.
kindle - start;
billow - to swell out, puff up, etc., as by the action of wind;
blaze - a bright flame or fire;
wrought /rɔt/ - worked;
havoc /ˈhæv ək/ - ruinous damage;
bone-house - container for the skeletal remains of an individual;
disconsolate /dɪsˈkɒn sə lɪt/ - hopelessly unhappy;
decease /dɪˈsis/ - death;
litany /ˈlɪt n i/ - prayer;
lament /ləˈmɛnt/ - sorrow or mourning;
rampage /ˈræm peɪdʒ/ - a state of violent anger or agitation, лють;
abasement /əˈbeɪsmənt/ - depriving one of self-esteem
In addition, the entire narrative of Beowulf is knit together by an elaborate set of thematic parallels and repetitions.
E.g. parallel drawn between old Hrothgar at the beginning of the poem and old Beowulf at the end, and this parallel is reinforced by the poet’s occasionally using the same formulaic /ˌfɔr myəˈleɪ ɪk/ phrases to refer to the aged Beowulf as he has formerly used to refer to the aged king Hrothgar. Similarly phrases used of young Beowulf are repeated late in the poem in reference to young Wiglaf, thus suggesting another parallel of characters.
The most remarkable example of repetition in Beowulf is the hero’s report toHygelac about the events that took place in the Danish land. In fact the greatest contribution which the repetition makes to our understanding of the poem is precisely the insight it gives us to Beowulf’s character. We get to see events through his eyes and to see something of his personality.
The consistency with which thesis is answered by antithesis /ænˈtɪθ ə sɪs/in the design of Beowulf seems to be a special characteristic of the poet's style and way of viewing the world.
діаметрально протилежні
A symbol of evil and corruption, dragons were seen as the antithesis of a good king. Good kings shared their treasures with the people, and dragons accumulated and guarded them. Often joy is answered by sorrow in a network of reversals that undercuts any confidence in the permanence of earthly success.
On the poem’s macro level of analysis antithesis is involved to contrast pagan and Christian ideas.
Beowulf is a reflection of many Anglo-Saxon ideals and concepts. This work was written after the Anglo-Saxons were already Christianized, yet the pagan traditions that had dominated their lives were not in the distant past; they were relatively recent. This combination between pagan concepts and Christianity is demonstrated in Beowulf. It was a Christian author that wrote Beowulf for a Christian audience.
The pagan concept of fame is demonstrated throughout Beowulf. To Beowulf and the other characters of the story, to be famous is to display courage and to accomplish heroic tasks. And, as the character Beowulf himself states "let him who can win fame before death, because that is a dead man's best memorial". Hrothgar tells Beowulf that by his defeat of the monsters he has established fame forever.
The only after life a warrior could ever hope to have was immortality through fame. Although bravery and heroism may not necessarily be Christian concepts or virtues, the author attributes both of these to God through the speech of his characters. Hrothgar states that Beowulf's killing of Grendel was achieved "through the power of the Lord". After earning fame just before death after his stand against the dragon, Beowulf declares his "thankfulness to God the king of glory, our eternal Lord". Thus, in Beowulf the concept of fame is tied back to elements of Christianity.
Fate is another pagan concept that plays a role in the story of Beowulf. Within Beowulf fate is often mentioned or referred to in association with death or greatness. Beowulf, when he speaks of his future battle with the dragon, states that "fate, the master of us all, must decide this issue". He resigns to fate, which is a pagan concept, but he makes no mention of God. Hrothgar attributes Beowulf's actions to God even if Beowulf does not on numerous occasions. In reference to fate specifically, Hrothgar states that "through the power of the Lord, a man has performed the task which...we were so far unable to accomplish", which associates Beowulf's defeat of Grendel with the will of God. During Beowulf's address to the king before he even fights Grendel, Beowulf states that "whichever of [them] is killed must resign himself to the verdict of God" and that "fate must decide", all within the same passage. Beowulf demonstrates both his Christian beliefs and his belief in pagan concepts. The author shows once again that although these views may be opposing, they may both be held.
The pagan concept of vengeance is also found in Beowulf. The clearest example of this is after the death of Hrothgar's friend. Beowulf tells Hrothgar that it is better "for a man to avenge his friend than grieve him long", which is not a very Christian idea. Yet Hrothgar, after Beowulf finishes this address, "sprang up and thanked the Almighty for the hero's words".
The pagan concept of vengeance is also seen as the cause of Beowulf's battle with the dragon. The author wrote, "the king of the Geats planned to take vengeance" after the dragon destroyed the land of the Geats. Yet, once again, the author reconciles this vengeance with elements of Christianity. Beowulf thought that he had "greatly angered the Lord through some breach of the Commandments". Although Beowulf wanted to seek vengeance on the dragon, he at first thought that he had gone against the will of God in some way. The two perspectives, pagan and Christian, therefore, co-exist in the poem.
Christians thought of dragons as a symbol of sin and they are often represented as crushed under the feet of saints and martyrs, symbolizing the triumph of Christianity over paganism. Can Beowulf be compared to St. George the Victorious?
Although primarily a pagan poem, Beowulf contains Christian allusions that cannot be ignored. There is no mention of Jesus in Beowulf, and references to God seem based on the Old Testament rather than the New. But there are numerous passages containing biblical history or allusions to some scriptural narrative. These include references to Cain /keɪn/, Abel /ˈeɪ bəl/, and the flood. There are references to Christian doctrines of hell, heaven, and the judgment day.
Still, many of the Christian references have the feel of afterthoughts. It seems more likely that they were added to the work as it developed — not necessarily by one scop or scribe but by several, all trying to make the poem more acceptable to an increasingly Christian audience. The manuscript that we end up with is clearly influenced by Christian philosophy but remains heavily heroic.
The language of Beowulf is extremely rich and inventive, full of imposing tones and rhythms: there are a great many near synonyms for ‘warrior’; many compound adjectives denoting hardness; many images of light, colour, and blood; many superlatives and exaggerations to underline the heroic, legendary aspects of the tale.
Beowulf stands out as a poem which makes extensive use of figurative language. There are over one thousand compounds in the poem, totalling one-third of all the words in the text. E.g. prince is called “distributor of treasure”, or - attention!!! – “lord of the rings”. (J.R.R. Tolkien /ˈtoʊl kin/, a professor of languages at Oxford in the early 20th century, was especially interested in Beowulf. In 1936 Tolkien gave a lecture entitled " Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics, " which was highly influential in establishing the epic as an important part of literary history. Tolkien also used many elements from Beowulf as inspiration for his famous "Lord of the Rings" trilogy.)
Many of these compounds are kennings. A kenning is a form of compressed metaphor.
Along with patterns and conventions in Beowulf’s composition there is a breathing space for poetic originality. 700 of the words in Beowulf are unique to this poem.
/niˈɒl əˌdʒɪz əm/
Modern versions of Beowulf
Despite being composed in the Anglo-Saxon era, Beowulf continues to captivate modern audiences. The poem has provided the basis for films, plays, operas, graphic novels and computer games. Among the more notable recent versions are the films The 13th Warrior (1999), adapted from the novel Eaters of the Dead by Michael Crichton /ˈkraɪt n/ (d. 2008);
the Icelandic-Canadian co-production Beowulf & Grendel (2005);
and Beowulf (2007), starring Ray Winstone, Anthony Hopkins and Angelina Jolie.
Beowulf has also been translated into numerous languages, including modern English, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese and Russian.
Perhaps the most famous modern translation is that by Seamus Heaney/ˈʃeɪ məs/ /ˈheɪ ni/, Nobel /noʊˈbɛl/ Laureate /ˈlɔr i ɪt/ in Literature, which won the Britain's prestigious Whitbread Book of Year Award in 1999 beating out Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban and making Beowulf a best-seller on both sides of the Atlantic 1,000 years after it was written.
The end of the XX - the beginning of the XXI century is sometimes labeled as Beowulf boom.
