QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAMINATION BY COURSE OF NORMAL PHYSIOLOGY
St semester
The object and purpose of physiology. Methods of research in physiology. The history of physiology. The development of physiology in Russia: Sechenov, Pavlov, Vvedensky, Ukhtomsky. Kazan physiological school: Ovsyannikov, Kovalevsky, Mislavsky, Samoilov. The current stage of development of physiology.
Regulation of physiological functions. The concept of homeostasis. The regulatory system. Nervous and humoral regulation. Positive and negative feedback.
Physiology of excitable systems
The structure of cell membrane of excitable cells, main functions. Ion channels, classification and physiological role. The mechanisms of activation of ion channels (ligand-gated, voltage-gated, mechanosensitive).
Characterization of intra- and extracellular fluid of excitable cells. The transport across the cell membrane. Ion pumps, their varieties. Primarily and secondarily active transport. The ionotropic and metabotropic receptors of the cell membrane.
Excitability. History of the discovery of electrical phenomena. The membrane potential. Factors to ensure his appearance and maintenance. Parameters of excitability. Threshold irritation, chronaxia, lability. The action potential, ionic mechanisms of its occurrence. The analysis of phases of the action potential. Regenerative depolarization. Refractory, its phase. The mechanisms and physiological significance of sodium inactivation. The law of "all or nothing".
Local response, mechanism of occurrence. Comparison of the local response to the properties of the action potential. Action of DC to excitable membranes. Law of Polar irritation (Pflugers Law). The phenomenon of accommodation.
Features of excitation of myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers. The speed of the conduction of impulse. Classification of nerve fibers at the speed of the conduction. Laws of conduction of excitation along the nerve fibers.
Chemical and electrical synapses. Conduction of excitation in the neuromuscular junction. The structure of the synapse. Quantum secretion of neurotransmitter. The spontaneous quantum secretion. Exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of the postsynaptic membrane. The role of acetylcholinesterase. End-plate potentials and the generation of the action potential in the muscle fiber. Pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms of action of physiologically active substances and pharmaceutical drugs on neuromuscular transmission. Violation of neuromuscular transmission during fatigue.
Types of muscle fibers. The structure of myofibrils as a functional unit of the muscle fiber. The mechanism of muscle contraction in striated muscle sarcomere. The sliding filament theory. Role of calcium ions and ATP in muscle contraction. Electromechanical coupling. The process of muscle relaxation. Rigor mortis. Simple twitch, summation and tetanus. Types of tetanic contraction. Tonic muscle contraction. Contracture. Energy of muscle contraction. Phasic and tonic muscle fibers. Features of functioning and metabolism of oxidative and glycolytic fibers.
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The concept of the motor unit. Regulation of muscle strength. The development of fatigue in the body, in neuromuscular preparation and in individual muscles.
Features of the structure, innervation and contraction of smooth muscles. Spontaneous contractions of smooth muscle and its mechanism. Single-unit (unitary) and multiunit smooth muscle.
Central Nervous System
Reflex as a general principle of regulation of body functions. The reflex arc and its components. Classification of reflexes. The somatic and autonomic reflexes. Mono- and polysynaptic reflexes. Basic types and function of neuronal and glial cells. The blood-brain barrier, mechanisms and functions. Central synapses. Mediators in the CNS. EPSP and IPSP. Pre- and postsynaptic inhibition. The phenomenon of summation - temporal and spatial summation.
The properties and characteristics of the excitation of neuronal networks: the divergence, convergence, potentiation, occlusion. The principle of convergence (final common pathway). Inhibition in the CNS (I.M.Sechenov), its types and role. Modern understanding of the mechanisms of central inhibition. Reciprocal, lateral, Renshaws inhibition. The concept of the nerve center, its properties. The Dominant principle. Features of the dominant center (Ukhtomsky). Factors contributing to the emergence of dominant.
Spinal cord. Motor function of the spinal cord. Monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes. Afferent proprioceptive system. Extrafusal and intrafusal fibers. The concept of the gamma loop. Regulation of muscle tone. The tendon reflexes. Somatic polysynaptic reflexes (flexor, rectifier). Automatic programs of spinal cord. Spinal reflexes causing muscle spasm. Spinal autonomic reflexes. Transmission of information by the spinal cord. Spinal shock.
Motor function of the brain stem. Static and statokinetic reflexes. Motor nucleus of the brain stem: red, vestibular, reticular formation nuclei. Functions of red nuclei, their influence on the alpha and gamma motor neurons of the spinal cord. Decerebrate rigidity. Postural reflexes of the medulla oblongata. The most important autonomic reflexes of the medulla oblongata. The role of the midbrain in the implementation statokinetic reflexes. Visual and auditory orientation reflexes. Spasticity and rigidity.
The cerebellum and its basic functions. Downstream and upstream connection of the cerebellum with other departments of the central nervous system. The consequences of the removal of the cerebellum. Symptoms resulting from the failure of the cerebellum and their causes.
Reticular formation, its structure and function of neural organization. Reticular neurons. Polysensoric reticular neurons. Reticular activating system.
Diencephalon. The thalamus as a collector of sensitive information. The nuclei of the thalamus. Hypothalamus and its functions. Characteristics of neurons and hypothalamic nuclei.
The basal nuclei. The value of the basal ganglia in the coordination of motor activity as an intermediary between associative and motor areas of the cortex. The value of the "black substance," its relationship with the basal nuclei. Parkinson's disease.
Motor areas of the cerebral cortex. The role of the pyramid and extrapyramid systems in the organization of motor acts.
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The limbic system, its structure, the main physiological function.
The cerebral cortex of the brain, its structure. The cellular structure of the cortex. Representation of functions in the cortex. Sensory, motor and associative areas. Localization of functions in the cerebral cortex.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system, their characteristics. Mediators of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The mechanism of action of mediators of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions on various receptors. Autonomic reflexes and centers of regulation of vegetative functions.
Electric phenomena in the cortex at rest and activity of the organism. Electroencephalography. The main types of electrical activity in the EEG and the mechanisms of their occurrence. Evoked potentials. The clinical use of EEG.
Electromyography. Diagnosis of muscular apparatus using electromyography.
Physiology of sensory systems
Analyzers. Structure and physiological significance. Information coding in the sensor systems. The concept of sensation. General properties of receptors. Classification of receptors and their types. Classification receptors. Of primarily and secondary-sensory receptor cells. The mechanism of excitation in receptors. The receptor potential. Adaptation of receptors. Features of coding in analyzers. The encoding of incoming information, examples of certain types of coding.
Visual Analyzer. The optical system of the eye. The pupil and the pupillary reflex. Accommodation of the eye. Refractive errors of the eye (nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism). Presbyopia. The structure of the retina. Photoreceptors. Blind Spot. Photochemical reactions in the receptors of the retina. Electrical phenomena in the retina and optic nerve. Receptive fields of neurons. Electroretinogram. Electrical activity of pathways and centers of the visual analyzer. The dark and light adaptation. Color vision. Theory of color perception. Color blindness. The motor apparatus of the eye. The temporal characteristics of eye movements (saccades, fixation periods and smooth motion). Processing of visual information in the thalamus. The transformation of the visual sensory stimulation in the thalamus. Analysis of visual sensory stimulation of the visual cortex neurons.
Hearing analyzer. Structure and function of the outer, middle and inner ear. The organ of Corti, its structure and mechanism of excitation. The perception of sounds of different frequencies. The mechanism of genesis of receptor potential in the hair cells of the spiral ganglion. Conduction and analysis of sound in the CNS.
The vestibular analyzer. Native stimuli for the otolith apparatus and the semicircular canals. The central part of the vestibular system, the maintenance of balance. Vestibular reflexes, nystagmus.
Olfactory and taste analyzers. The location and structure. Sensitivity threshold. Adaptation. The sensitivity of the receptors to different kinds of taste stimuli. Flavour Map of tongue. Central processing of gustatory and olfactory information
Somato-visceral sensitivity. Modal properties. Classification of afferent nerve fibers, receptor structures, types of sensitivity. Cutaneous mechanoreceptors, their classification, histology, functional significance. Afferent innervation of the skin, the receptor field.
Proprioception and its quality. Classification of proprioceptors, histology, innervation. Central integration of proprioceptive stimuli. body schema.
Thermoreception. Static and dynamic senses. The sensation of heat and cold.
Nociception. Qualities pain. Painful stimuli, adaptation to pain. Neurophysiological basis of pain: the theory of perception of pain. Nociceptors and their innervation. Mediators of pain and antinociceptive system.
Processing of Sensory Information in the CNS. Levels of processing of sensory information, specific and nonspecific sensory system. Afferent connections in the spinal cord. Somatosensory function of the brain stem, the role of the reticular formation. Specific and non-specific thalamic nuclei. Somatosensory cortical areas and their projection of the body.
