- 1
1
.--
- .
.11 22.06.2012 .
: .., ..
: ..
, , ( ) . , , , .
, , , , .
, , , , ( ).
, , , . .
1 4 1 .
, . , . . :
, ; . , , , . ( ; ).
|
|
|
1
, 1, :
1) .
2) to be, to have. , , ..
3) Simple .
4) Simple .
1
I. , , . , .
1. wear, officers, The police, usually, a uniform.
2. are, minor, Where, cases, heard?.
3. did, The prosecution, the accused, the guilt, of, not, prove.
4. court, Sometimes, allowed, a solicitor, his, in, represent, is, to, client.
5. He, innocence, proved, his, Court, the, Crown, in.
II. to be to have, .
1. He has no grounds for his complaint.
2. Another important feature of the Common Law tradition is Equity.
3. He had to claim his money back after the breach of the contract.
4. The state, not the courts, was to make law.
5. He is grounding his complaint at the moment.
III. , , Present, Past Future Simple .
1. The Crown Court (to hear) this appeal from the magistrates court a month ago.
2. The US Congress (to consist) of two Houses.
3. The jury (to announce) their decision in three hours.
4. The Prime Minister of Great Britain (to appoint) Ministers of the Cabinet last week.
5. Criminology (to have) many practical applications.
IV. , , Present, Past Future Simple .
1. The compensation to the victim of a violent crime (to assess) next week.
2. The maximum period for which a suspected terrorist can be held in custody (to reduce) from 72 to 48 hours in 2010.
3. The criminal law (to interpret) by the court but changes in the law (to make) by the Parliament.
4. As a rule, the bill of impeachment (to approve) by two-thirds of representatives.
5. The Queen of Great Britain (to crown) 60 years ago.
V. , , .
1. This article (presents / is presented) a brief survey of the law system in England.
2. Every law system (corresponded / was corresponded) to the class character of the society.
3. Common law (also refers / is also referred) to as case-law or judge-made law.
4. Statute law (bases / is based) on statutes.
5. English law (consisted / was consisted) of rules of Common law and Equity.
VI. , 1, 2, 5. 3, 4.
Criminology
(1)Criminology is a social science dealing with the nature, extent, and causes of crime; the characteristics of criminals and their organizations; the problems of apprehending and convicting offenders; the operation of prisons and other correctional institutions; the rehabilitation of convicts both in and out of prison; and the prevention of crime.
(2)The science of criminology has two basic objectives: to determine the causes, whether personal or social, of criminal behaviour and to evolve valid principles for the social control of crime. In pursuing these objectives, criminology draws on the findings of biology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, and related fields.
|
|
|
(3)Criminology originated in the late 18th century when various movements began to question the humanity and efficiency of using punishment for retribution rather than deterrence and reform. There arose as a consequence what is called the classical school of criminology, which aimed to mitigate legal penalties and humanize penal institutions. During the 19th century the positivist school attempted to extend scientific neutrality to the understanding of crime. Because they held that criminals were shaped by their environment, positivists emphasised case studies and rehabilitative measures. A later school, the 'social defence' movement, stressed the importance of balance between the rights of criminals and the rights of society.
(4)Criminologists commonly use several research techniques. The collection and interpretation of statistics is generally the initial step in research. The case study, often used by psychologists, concentrates on an individual or a group. The typological method involves classifying offences, criminals, or criminal areas according to various criteria. Sociological research, which may involve many different techniques, is used in criminology to study groups, subcultures, and gangs as well as rates and kinds of crime within geographic areas.
(5)Criminology has many practical applications. Its findings can give lawyers, judges, and prison officials a better understanding of criminals, which may lead to more effective treatment. Criminological research can be used by legislators and in the reform of laws and of penal institutions.
VII. .
1. What does criminology deal with?
2. What gave a rise to the originating of criminology?
6. By whom can criminology be used?
2
I. , , . , .
1. He, innocence, his, the, proved, Court, Crown, in.
2. adopted, Both, a bill, Parliament, of, Houses.
3. less, Lawyers, to make, mysterious, made, profession, their, efforts.
4. the accused, the innocence, did, The defence, prove, not, of.
5. the jury, Did, verdict, their, give, not, or?
II. to be to have, .
1. A contract usually contains many clauses about what kinds of goods are to be supplied; who is to pay for transport; what prices are to be paid.
2. His claim for damages will be invalid.
3. The doctrine of precedent is a central feature of modern Common Law systems.
4. The government is considering various proposals, but there are arguments for and against the division.
5. He has to ground his complaint if he wants to have a compensation.
III. , , Present, Past Future Simple .
1. The leader of the majority party in the House of Commons usually (to become) Prime Minister.
2. The jury (to announce) their decision in three hours.
3. The modern political system of Great Britain (to begin) over 200 years ago.
4. The students (to know) the results of the examination next week.
5. As a result of some reforms the government (to regulate) many of law institutions.
IV. , , Present, Past Future Simple .
1. Victims of violent crimes (to entitle) to compensation as a right in a year.
2. As a rule, the bill of impeachment (to approve) by two-thirds of representatives.
|
|
|
3. A number of measures to strengthen the criminal justice system (to take) last year.
4. Official statistics of crimes always (to affect) by changes in the proportion of undiscovered or unreported crimes.
5. Nowadays the successful projects (to extend) on the same basis to some other urban areas.
V. , , .
1. Common law (also refers / is also referred) to as case-law or judge-made law.
2. Magistrates courts (deal / are dealt) with about 98% of criminal cases in England and Wales.
3. A person convited by a magistrates court (may appeal / may be appealed) to the Crown Court.
4. Justice of the Peace (held / was held) a prominent position in his locality.
5. The office of magistrates (dated / was dates) back to the year 1360.
VI. , 1, 3. 2.
THE CAUSES OF CRIME
(1) No one knows why crime occurs. The oldest theory, based on theology and ethics, is that criminals are perverse persons who deliberately commit crimes or who do so at the instigation of the devil or other evil spirits. Although this idea has been discarded by modern criminologists, it persists among uninformed people and provides the rationale for the harsh punishments still meted out to criminals in many parts of the world.
(2) Since the 18th century, various scientific theories have been advanced to explain crime. One of the first efforts to explain crime on scientific, rather than theological, grounds was made at the end of the 18th century by the German physician and anatomist Franz Joseph Gall, who tried to establish relationships between skull structure and criminal proclivities. This theory, popular during the 19th century, is now discredited and has been abandoned. A more sophisticated theory a biological one was developed late in the 19th century by the Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who asserted that crimes were committed by persons who are born with certain recognizable hereditary physical traits. Lombroso's theory was disproved early in the 20th century by the British criminologist Charles Goring. Goring's comparative study of jailed criminals and law-abiding persons established that so-called criminal types, with innate dispositions to crime, do not exist. Recent scientific studies have tended to confirm Goring's findings. Some investigators still hold, however, that specific abnormalities of the brain and of the endocrine system contribute to a person's inclination toward criminal activity.
(3) Another approach to an explanation of crime was initiated by the French political philosopher Montesquieu, who attempted to relate criminal behavior to natural, or physical environment. His successors have gathered evidence tending to show that crimes against person, such as homicide, are relatively more numerous in warm climates, whereas crimes against property, such as theft, are more frequent in colder regions. Other studies seem to indicate that the incidence of crime declines in direct ratio to drops in barometric pressure, to increased humidity, and to higher temperature.
VII. .
1. Why does crime occur?
2. What was developed by the Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso?
3. Where are crimes against property more frequent?
3
I. , , . , .
|
|
|
1. the evidence, The witness, to give, had, the lawyer, to
2. the jury, Did, verdict, their, give, not, or?
3. Only, the, are, cases, High, civil, Court, in, heard.
4. in, always, A barrister, is, his, court, clients, allowed, represent, to.
5. of, not guilty, was, The verdict, the jury.
II. to be to have, .
1. He has already grounded his complaint and is going to get a compensation.
2. Each country in the world has its own system of law.
3. A person often had to begin actions in different courts in order to get a satisfactory solution.
4. He is to ground his complaint and to get a compensation.
5. His claim was to recover damages.
III. , , Present, Past Future Simple .
1. As a result of some reforms the government (to regulate) many law institutions.
2. In 1066, the Kings judges gradually (to unite) the different local customs into a single body.
3. A bill (to become) a law in four weeks.
4. Newspapers often (to publish) information on economic crimes.
5. Last week one driver of an auto accident (to sue) the other.
IV. , , Present, Past Future Simple .
1. Because judges are men but not machine, their judgments (to affect) by human weaknesses.
2. A number of measures to strengthen the criminal justice system (to take) last month.
3. The injured party (to allow) to assert it civil claim in the criminal prosecution next week.
4. Very often courts (to call) upon to decide controversies.
5. At times the jurors (to ask) to decide a series of specific factual issues.
V. , , .
1. The office of magistrates (dated / was dated) back to the year 1360.
2. Crown Courts (preside / are presided) over by a judge.
3. The judge (helps / is helped) in deciding on the penalty by two Justices of the Peace.
4. In December 1969 the Labour Home Secretary (introduced / was introduced) a bill abolishing the death penalty.
5. When the examination of the Crown witnesses (concludes / is concluded) the defence may call other witnesses.
VI. , 1, 5. 2, 3, 4.
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: HISTORY
(1) Capital punishment is a legal infliction of the death penalty, in modern law, corporal punishment in its most severe form. The usual alternative to the death penalty is long-term or life imprisonment.
(2) The earliest historical records contain evidence of capital punishment. It was mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi. The Bible prescribed death as the penalty for more than 30 different crimes, ranging from murder to fornication The Draconian Code of ancient Greece imposed capital punishment for every offence.
(3) In England, during the reign of William the Conqueror, the death penalty was not used, although the results of interrogation and torture were often fatal. By the end of the 15th century, English law recognised six major crimes: treason, murder, larceny, burglary, rape, and arson. By 1800, more than 200 capital crimes were recognised, and as a result, 1000 or more persons were sentenced to death each year (although most sentences were commuted by royal pardon). In early American colonies the death penalty was commonly authorized for a wide variety of crimes. Blacks, whether slave or free, were threatened with death for many crimes that were punished less severely when committed by whites.
(4) Efforts to abolish the death penalty did not gather momentum until the end of the 18th century. In Europe, a short treatise, On Crimes and Punishments, by the Italian jurist Cesare Beccaria, inspired influential thinkers such as the French philosopher Voltaire to oppose torture, flogging, and the death penalty.
(5) The abolition of capital punishment in England in November 1965 was welcomed by most people with humane and progressive ideas. To them it seemed a departure from feudalism, from the cruel pre-Christian spirit of revenge: an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. Many of these people think differently now. Since the abolition of capital punishment crime and especially murder has been on increase throughout Britain. Today, therefore, public opinion in Britain has changed People who before, also in Parliament,
(6)stated that capital punishment was not a deterrent to murder for there have always been murders in all countries with or without the law of execution now feel that killing the assassin is the lesser of two evils. Capital punishment, they think, may not be the ideal answer, but it is better than nothing, especially when, as in England, a sentence of life imprisonment only lasts eight or nine years.
|
|
|
VII. .
1. What is the usual alternative to the death penalty?
2. What was recognized by English law by the end of the 15-th century?
3. Why was the abolition of capital punishment in England welcomed by most people?
4
I. , , . , .
1. in, always, A barrister, is, his, court, clients, allowed, represent, to.
2. himself, for, reason, defending, A defendant, his, gave.
3. were, All, the jury, of, the members, in, at, last, the, agreement, case, of, hearing, the.
4. can, a permit, A, apply, at, person, for, the age, 18, young, of.
5. agreed, The House, bill, on, month, Representatives, of, the, last.
II. to be to have, .
1. His aim is to ground his complaint today.
2. He was claiming his money back because his partner had broken the contract.
3. Common Law has had a stronger influence in such countries as Spain.
4. In such a case the lawyer has to transfer one of his clients to another lawyer.
5. He had a claim for damages after the other party had broken the contract.
III. , , Present, Past Future Simple .
1. Newspapers often (to publish) information on economic crimes.
2. The trial by jury (to become) compulsory in the 12-th century.
3. The plaintiff is a person who (to bring) an action in civil law.
4. Next week the President (to sign) a very important agreement.
5. The Supreme Court (to apply) the Constitution to decide cases involving the presidency and Congress.
IV. , , Present, Past Future Simple .
1. At times the jurors (to ask) to decide a series of specific factual issues.
2. At the last trial the jury (to require) to reach its decision with unanimity.
3. In future the offenders (to prevent) from committing further crime by short terms of imprisonment.
4. The primary function of any court system in any nation is so obvious that it rarely (to mention)
5. He wanted to claim his money back yesterday, but the hearing (to cancel).
V. , , .
1. The judge (helps / is helped) in deciding on the penalty by two Justices of the Peace.
2. Punishment by death (abolished / was abolished) for trial period of five years in 1965.
3. In a civil suit the solicitor (prepares / is prepared) the case for the courts.
4. The Family Division (deals / is dealt) with divorce and questions arising out of wills.
5. For judicial purposes the House of Lords (composes / is composed) only of the Lords of Appeal.
VI. , 5, 6, 7. 1, 2, 3, 4.
