Simultaneous realization within the same short context of two meanings of a polysemantic word is called zeugma. E.g. All girls were in tears and white muslin. Here the independent meaning of the verb were (to be in white muslin to be dressed in white muslin) and its phraseological meaning (to be in tears to cry), which slightly faded in the phraseological unit, are realized simultaneously.
The same effect is achieved when the word upon which the effect is based, is repeated, which creates the stylistic device of pun. Such simultaneous realization of two meanings sometimes leads to a misunderstanding, deliberately organized by the author. The same happens with the ambiguous use of prepositions, which leads to mixing up the attribute with the prepositional object. E.g. Did you hit a woman with the child? No, Sir, I hit her with a brick.
The further away are the meanings of a polysemantic word, the stronger is the stylistic effect achieved by their simultaneous realization. Humoristic effect is achieved here due to the ridiculousness of bringing together two such different meanings.
Two homonyms have still less in common than two meanings of a polysemantic word, and their realization within the same context always brings forth a pun.
Another device based on the interaction between the primary and secondary meanings is violation of a phraseological unit. The inner mechanism of this device lies in the literal interpretation of the elements of a phraseological unit, though the ways to achieve it are different: it can be the authors intrusion into the unit. E.g. it took a desperate, ungovernable, frantic hold of him.
Another way of violation of a phraseological unit is its prolongation.
Very often violation of a phraseological unit takes place in proverbs and sayings, most of which are set phrases and fusions.
A false phraseological coinage occurs mainly in direct speech of personages to characterize them through their speech. The final result achieved is always humorous.
As we have seen the interaction between the primary and secondary meanings of a word is realized in many ways and for its main stylistic function has the achievement of humorous effect.
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Epithet
Epithet is a stylistic device based on the interaction of the logical and emotive meanings. It shows the purely individual emotional attitude of the writer or the speaker towards the object mentioned.
Epithet is expressed by:
1) adjectives;
2) adverbs;
Adjectives and adverbs constitute the greatest majority of epithets.
3) participles, both present and past;
4) nouns, especially often in of-phrases;
5) word-combinations;
6) whole phrases.
The last two groups of epithets help the writer in a rather concise form to express the emotional attitude of a personage towards an object or phenomenon. In most cases it is a direct quotation of the characters remark. Such a usage of a quotation for an epithet stresses the subjectivity, individuality of the characters perception. It renders the emotional attitude of the personage.
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Phrase-epithet helps not only to reveal the individual view of the author and his characters but at the same time to do it in a rather economical manner.
One more structural type of epithet is monopolized by the English language. It is based on the illogical syntactical relations between the modifier and the modified. Such constructions enable the writer to use nouns of high emotional coloring, supplying them with additional characteristics without overcrowding the description.
Epithets vary not only in structure but in the manner of application too. So, most often we meet one-word, or simple epithet. Rather often epithets are used in pairs. Not seldom three, four, five and even more epithets are joined in chains.
From the viewpoint of their expressive power epithets can be regarded as those stressing qualities of the object or phenomenon and as those transferring the quality of one object to its closest neighbour. When the same definition is given to a smile it becomes an individual evaluation of the same, and is classified as a transferred epithet. A metaphoric epithet presents a metaphor within an epithet.
In most cases metaphoric epithet is expressed by adjectives and adverbs. Into the same group of metaphoric epithets must be included compound epithets, the second element of which is -like.
As all the other stylistic devices, epithets become hackneyed through long usage.
Epithets should not be mixed up with logical attributes which have the same syntactical function but which do not convey the subjective attitude of the author towards the described object, pointing out only the objectively existing feature of the same.
e.g. Can you tell me what time that game starts today? The girl gave him a lipsticky smile.
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is based on the interaction of logical and emotive meanings. It presents a combination of two contrasting ideas.
The oxymoron reveals the contradictory sides of one and the same phenomenon. One of its components discloses some objectively existing feature or quality, while the other one serves to convey the authors personal attitude towards the same.
The structure of oxymoron is extremely varied. By most critics it is regarded as an attributive syntagma.
As soon as an oxymoron gets into circulation it loses its most characteristic feature of bringing two opposite ideas together and becomes a phraseological unit.
e.g. awfully nice, pretty bad, mighty small.
Interaction of logical and emotive meanings
The emotive meaning or emotional colouring (contextual emotive meaning) of a word plays a considerable role in stylistics. Both words and constructions of an emotional character have a stylistic significance only when they are set against the non-emotional. Thus, for instance, interjections, which are erroneously referred to as parts of speech are, in fact, signals of emotional tension. They must be regarded as expressive means of the language and as such may be effectively used as stylistic devices in the proper context.
