, 2015
81.432.1 73-9
802.0 (07)
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( 6 11.02.2015) - ( 5 18.02.2015).
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- much, many, (a) few, (a) little;
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- (, , , , , , );
- ( );
- to be; ;
- Present, Past, Future (Simple, Continuous, Perfect).
2
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- ;
- : can, may, must, have to, should; ;
- some, any, no, every ;
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- s ( );
- Present, Past, Future (Simple, Continuous, Perfect);
- Present, Past, Future (Simple, Continuous, Perfect);
- ; .
1
1
1.
, , , :
Tool () tool s
Company () compan ies
Criterion, key, service, office, apparatus, knife, information, phenomenon, variety, animal.
2.
. , .
| . | ||||||||
| produce () | produc er () produc tion () product ivity () | product ive () | ||||||
To assist, to direct, to install, to vary, to expect.
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3.
, much,
| many, | few, | a | few, | little, | a | little. |
, , , , , , , .
4.
, . .
1. Dont worry. The situation isnt so bad. It could be (bad).
2. It is (funny) joke Ive ever heard.
3. It is a very valuable painting. It is (valuable) in the gallery.
4. She has very (beautiful) grey eyes.
5. Your work isnt very good. Im sure you can do (good).
5.
, Present Simple Present Continuous .
| . |
1. Please dont make so much noise. The children (to sleep) at present.
2. Claire! Nice to see you. What you (to do) these days?
3. Look! That man (to try) to open the door of your car.
4. Agriculture in the United Kingdom (to use) around 70% of the country's land area.
6.
, Future Simple.
| . |
1. If Mrs. Stoney (to come) in St.Petersburg, he (to meet) her at the rail-way station for sure.
2. We (to be) late for the presentation of our equipment, if you (not to hurry).
3. As soon as he (to come) into the office, he (to call) you back.
7.
.
| 1- () | 2- | 3- |
| Got | ||
| Take | ||
| Eaten | ||
| Was, Were | ||
| Read | ||
| Did |
8.
, Past Simple Present Perfect .
1. Joule (to find) that the temperature of a gas falls when it expands without doing any work.
2. You ever (to see) the eruption of a volcano?
3. Look at this bird-house. I (to make) it myself.
4. They (to leave) Moscow when he (to be) a child.
9.
. , ( ) .
WHAT IS AGRICULTURE?
Agriculture, also called farming or husbandry, is the cultivation of animals, plants, and other life forms for food, biofuel, medicinals and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that resulted in the development of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on techniques to expand and maintain the lands that are suitable for raising domesticated species. For plants, this usually requires some form of irrigation, although there are methods of dryland farming. Livestock are raised in a combination of grassland-based and landless systems, in an industry that covers almost one-third of the world's ice- and water-free area. In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable agriculture, including permaculture and organic agriculture.
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The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, oils, meats and spices. Fibers include cotton, wool, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfume.
VOCABULARY
animal
plant
food ,
irrigation
raw materials
cereal (grain)
vegetables
spice ,
cotton
wool
flax
lumber
bamboo
resin
dyes
livestock
agriculture
domesticated
species , ,
permaculture
| dryland | farming |
grassland ,
monoculture
1
2
1.
, , , :
Tool () tool s
Company () compan ies
License, nutrient, procedure, branch, formula, chairman, basis, manufacturer, strategy, position.
2.
. , .
| . | ||||||||
| produce () | produc er () produc tion () product ivity () | product ive () | ||||||
To guarantee, to apply, to alter, to require, to specify.
3.
, much,
| many, | few, | a | few, | little, | a | little. |
, , , , , , , .
4.
, . .
1. Everest is (high) mountain in the world.
2. We had a great holiday. It was one of the (enjoyable) holidays weve ever had.
3. He was a bit depressed yesterday, but today he looks (happy).
4. My (favourite) season is spring.
5. I prefer this chair to the other one. Its (comfortable).
5.
, Present Simple Present Continuous .
| . |
1. I usually (not/ to go) to work by bus.
2. Good afternoon! I (to call) on behalf of John Maple who is away on a business trip at the moment.
3. You (to send) an urgent e-mail now?
4. The UK (to produce) only 59% of the food it consumes.
6.
, Future Simple.
| . |
1. Where you (to go) when you (to come) in Rome?
2. I (to speak) to Jack if I (to see) him today.
3. She (to make) all the necessary arrangements about it before I (to fly) there.
7.
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| 1- () | 2- | 3- |
| Written | ||
| Knew | ||
| Put | ||
| Begun | ||
| Go | ||
| Made |
8.
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, Past Simple Present Perfect .
1. How many times you (to be) to London?
2. Newtons mother (to want) him to be a farmer but he was not very good at it.
3. They know so much because they (to travel) a lot.
4. Peter the Great (to found) the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1724.
9.
. , ( ) .
CROP CULTIVATION SYSTEMS
Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; the government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and philosophy and culture of the farmer.
Shifting cultivation is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennialcrops for a period of several years. Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (1020). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.
Industrialization led to the use of monoculture, when one cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers. Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.
In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive annual cropping is the dominant farming system.
VOCABULARY
crop /
fallow
fertilizer
manure
pesticide
arid
irrigation
temperate
grassland
prairie ,
cultivar ,
productive
nutrient
annual
perennial
| pest | control |
control
acreage
biodiversity
intercropping
polyculture
subtropical
agriculture
agroforestry
| cropping | system | ||||
| shifting | cultivation | ||||
monoculture
1
3
1.
, , , :
Tool () tool s
Company () compan ies
Breed, technology, employer, plant, crisis, competitor, duty, pesticide, sheep, fertilizer.
2.
. , .
| . | ||||||||
| produce () | produc er () produc tion () product ivity () | product ive () | ||||||
To agree, to fabricate, to confirm, to modify, to accept.
3.
, much,
| many, | few, | a | few, | little, | a | little. |
, , , , , , , .
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4.
, . .
1. This coffee is very weak. I like a bit (strong).
2. The hotel was surprisingly cheap. I expected it to be (expensive).
3. Thats (boring) film Ive ever seen.
4. He is a very (tall) man.
5. What is (long) river in the world?
5.
, Present Simple Present Continuous .
| . |
1. John isnt lazy. He (to work) very hard most of the time.
2. You (to call) on behalf of Catherine Green?
3. The water (to boil). Can you turn it off?
4. It (not/ to rain) very much in summer.
6.
, Future Simple.
| . |
1. I hope they (to join) us at the conference-room as soon as they (to come).
2. Before she (to leave) to Rome, we think they (to come) to say good-bye to her.
3. If Mr. Brown (to negotiate) the contract successfully, he (to get) a promotion.
7.
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| 1- () | 2- | 3- |
| Forget | ||
| Drank | ||
| Chosen | ||
| Run | ||
| Had | ||
| Seen |
8.
, Past Simple Present Perfect .
1. The 19th century (to be) a period of numerous significant developments and discoveries.
2. You (to see) our engineer today?
3. In Great Britain since 1973 productivity (to grow) by 49%, output volumes (to increase) by 25%.
4. Mendeleev was born in 1834 to a large family his mother (to give) birth to 14 children.
9.
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LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, are often used to help cultivate fields, harvestcrops, and transport farm products to buyers. Animal husbandry not only refers to the breeding and raising of animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis, but also to the breeding and care of species for work and companionship.
Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland -based, mixed, and landless. As in 2010, 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply up to 2050. Aquaculture or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.
Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil. Mixed production systems use grassland, fodder crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.
VOCABULARY
horse
mule
ox (pl. oxen) ,
water buffalo
camel
llama
alpaca
donkey
crop /
grassland
milk cow
sheep
goat
livestock
harvest ;
cultivate ,
| animal | husbandry |
breeding ()
species , ,
beef ;
cattle
aquaculture
rangeland
pasture
ruminant
fodder ;
shrubland ,
1
4
1.
, , , :
Tool () tool s
Company () compan ies
Analysis, wage, technology, specification, pasture, mouse, device, system, contract, formula.
2.
. , .
| . | ||||||||
| produce () | produc er () produc tion () product ivity () | product ive () | ||||||
To consume, to motivate, to observe, to construct, to compete.
3.
, much,
| many, | few, | a | few, | little, | a | little. |
, , , , , , , .
4.
, . .
1. What is (popular) sport in your country?
2. It was an awful day. It was (bad) day of my life.
3. Jane is a very (intelligent) student.
4. Unfortunately her illness was (serious) than we thought at first.
5. Youre talking very loudly. Can you speak a bit (quite)?
5.
, Present Simple Present Continuous . .
1. Before buying any new equipment we (to require) as much information as we can about its producer.
2. You can join them, they (to have) a coffee-break in our conference-room.
3. The main factors that (to influence) crop sequences include the soil type, weather, the price and availability of labour and power, soil fertility.
4. I (to try) to find a job but its not easy.
6.
, Future Simple.
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1. We (to sing) this song with you, if you (to tell) us the words.
2. He (to call) you back, as soon as he (to come) into the office.
3. What you (to do) when you (to come) home?
7.
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| 1- () | 2- | 3- |
| Had | ||
| Speak | ||
| Gone | ||
| Get | ||
| Taken | ||
| Knew |
8.
, Past Simple Present Perfect .
1. When Einsteins General Theory of Relativity was proved to be true by British researchers in 1919, he (to become) world famous.
2. We already (to solve) the problem.
3. How many times he (to be) to Moscow?
4. They (to leave) Moscow when he (to be) a child.
9.
. , ( ) .
PRODUCTION PRACTICES
Tillage is the practice of plowingsoil to prepare it for planting or for nutrient incorporation or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also encourages the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the number and diversity of soil organisms.
Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, and resistance.
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of manure produced by livestock. Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures.
Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing crops in the following year. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.
VOCABULARY
tillage
plowing
soil
planting ;
nutrient
| pest | control |
no-till
fertilizer
weed
insect
mite
disease
pesticide
crop rotation
culling
cover crop
intercropping
resistance
crop /
livestock
manure
fallow
cropland
pasture
irrigation
composting
| nutrient | management | / | ||
| water | management | |||
2
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1.
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The agricultural engineerrecommends strategies to protect the health, safety and security of workers, animals and agricultural products.
2.
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1. You need not come to help them tomorrow: the work is done.
2. Can he turn the music down, please?
3. Dont go to the wood alone: you may lose your way.
4. It is already 7 oclock. We must hurry if we dont want to be late.
3.
some, any, no, every .
1. I could hear , it was very noisy.
2. I understand now. Thank you for your explanations.
3. I didnt take money with me, so I couldnt buy .
4. Give me books to read in my travelling, please.
5. You work very hard. Why dont you go to rest a little?
4.
s , , :
Our director in her mid-thirties. Our director s in her mid-thirties. (is; to be Present Simple)
1. Everybody says he a very reliable worker.
2. What colour Sarah mobile phone?
3. Dont disturb her, she preparing a report for the meeting.
4. He received some e-mails this morning.
5. He speaking over the phone with our agricultural consultant.
5.
(Active Voice Passive Voice), , .
The development of agriculture has played a major role in human history. (Active Voice, Present Perfect). .
1. Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, application of fertilizers and pesticides, and the domestication of livestock were developed long ago.
2. The e-mail had been sent by 7 oclock yesterday.
3. The vegetables didnt taste very good. They had been cooked for too long.
4. I will be sent a box of sweets by my colleagues.
5. Now common chemical weedkiller ingredients include sodium chlorate, copper chloride, sulphuric acid.
6. Most British farm animals are bred for a particular purpose, for example, for dairy.
6.
.
1. I asked him if he was afraid of getting a promotion.
2. She told me not to worry and go home quietly.
3. They told me he had bought a ticket the day before.
4. He asked me to buy a ticket to London on my way home.
5. Mary wonders if Jennifer is busy on Wednesday in two weeks.
6. George said that it was very difficult to head that department.
7.
. , ( ) .
THE HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY
After the Industrial Revolution, instead of harvesting grain by hand with a sharp blade, wheeled machines cut a continuous swath. Instead of threshing the grain by beating it with sticks, threshing machines separated the seeds from the heads and stalks. The first tractors appeared in the late 19th century.
Power for agricultural machinery was originally supplied by ox or other domesticated animals. With the invention of steam power the portable engine came, and later the traction engine, a multipurpose, mobile energy source that was the ground-crawling cousin to the steam locomotive. Agricultural steam engines took over the heavy pulling work of oxen, and were also equipped with a pulley that could power stationary machines via the use of a long belt.
The internal combustion engine, and later diesel engines, became the main source of power for the next generation of tractors. These engines also contributed to the development of the self-propelled, combined harvester and thresher, or combine harvester. Instead of cutting the grain stalks and transporting them to a stationary threshing machine, these combines cut, threshed, and separated the grain while moving continuously through the field.
VOCABULARY
blade ; ;
| wheeled | machine |
swath ; ; ,
threshing machine
tractor ,
agricultural machinery
| steam | power |
portable engine
traction engine -; ;
| steam | locomotive | ; |
pulley ;
internal combustion engine
| diesel | engine |
self-propelled
harvester ; -
thresher ;
2
2
1.
:
The agriculturalengineer is a person who plans the heating, cooling, ventilation, postharvest handling, logistics and more.
2.
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1. You need not come to help them tomorrow: the work is done.
2. If you want to improve your English, you should work very hard.
3. Can you fix this car?
4. Well, it is 10 oclock. I must go now.
3.
some, any, no, every .
1. Is there who knows French?
2. You work very hard; you must have a rest and go next summer.
3. I called back some minutes ago, but answered.
4. There are important questions that must be discussed.
5. I didnt take money with me, so I couldnt buy .
4.
s , , .
Our director in her mid-thirties. Our director s in her mid-thirties. (is; to be Present Simple)
1. He speaking over the phone with our agricultural consultant.
2. Who that girl with long dark hair?
3. My sister invested a lot of money in this project.
4. Do you know Rachael husband?
5. I am sure, she in the office at her working hours.
5.
(Active Voice Passive Voice) , .
The development of agriculture has played a major role in human history. (Active Voice, Present Perfect). .
1. Most cows are milked twice a day, and an average dairy cow yields 6,300 litres a year.
2. I think were being followed.
3. We discussed this problem some days ago.
4. When will this variety be planted at their farm?
5. Mr. Green gets a higher salary now.
6. The UK has about 73,000 goats, mostly as milk producers; this number is relatively small by EU standards.
6.
.
1. She asked me to hurry up as there was little time left before the beginning of the meeting.
2. He asked me not to buy a ticket to Moscow on my way home.
3. Jack told me that he hadnt been able to ring me up in time.
4. My colleagues say that they were having lunch at the nearest café.
5. At the personnel department they asked me where I lived.
6. The manager asked me if I knew the telephone number of our new employee.
7.
. , ( ) .
AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS
THAT CHANGED THE FACE OF FARMING
Reaper/Binder: Small grains had been harvested by hand for centuries, cut with sickles or scythes, hand-raked and tied into sheaves. Grain harvesting machines first appeared in Great Britain in about 1800, and in the U.S. a decade or two later, but most failed. Obed Hussey and Cyrus McCormick developed successful reapers during the 1830s. McCormick's machine became the more popular one; today he is credited with inventing the reaper. Those early machines still required the sheaves to be bound by hand, but in 1857 the Marsh brothers equipped a reaper with moving canvases that carried the grain to a platform where it was tied into bundles by a worker riding on the machine.
The first twine knotter was demonstrated in 1867 by John Appleby. Sylvanus Locke developed a wire binder in about 1874 and it was adopted by McCormick. Wire dominated for a short while, but bits of wire got into the grain and ended up inside livestock and flour with disastrous results. William Deering adopted the twine-tying mechanism for his popular Deering harvesters, and in about 1881, McCormick did as well.
VOCABULARY
reaper ; ;
binder ; ;
sickle ;
scythe ;
sheave ;
| grain | harvesting | machine |
canvases
bundle
| twine | knotter | ||
| Wire | binder | ||
twine-tying mechanism
harvester ; -
2
3
1.
:
The agricultural engineer worksin industries associated with agriculture such as equipment companies, seed manufacturers and food companies.
2.
.
1. We have got plenty of time. We need not hurry.
2. You have not to change the whole text as the beginning is all right. You should only rewrite the second part.
3. Can he turn the music down, please?
4. Dont go to the wood alone: you may lose your way.
3.
some, any, no, every .
1. Lets make a firms birthday party out of the office.
2. Tell me about your work experience.
3. I must receive very important e-mails.
4. The question was so difficult that could answer it.
5. Do you have questions?
4.
s , , .
Our director in her mid-thirties. Our director s in her mid-thirties. (is; to be Present Simple)
1. Why do you think he a very reliable worker?
2. Where Susan having lunch at the moment?
3. Carolyn recommendations were of great importance.
4. The leading agricultural engineer on a business trip in Scotland now.
5. She got the samples of that famous fertilizer this morning.
5.
(Active Voice Passive Voice) , .
The development of agriculture has played a major role in human history. (Active Voice, Present Perfect). .
1. Organic farming is farming without chemical fertilizers, animal cruelty, most pesticides, and genetic modification.
2. Havent you written an e-mail yet?
3. The flowers are watered regularly.
4. The room will be cleaned and aired.
5. By last winter everything had been prepared.
6. In 2003, the European Union saw biofuels as an answer to several problems: climate change, energy security and stimulating the rural economy.
6.
.
1. He asks me to buy a ticket to London on my way home.
2. He said that he would work in the open air.
3. At the personnel department they asked me where I lived.
4. I ask my colleague if she is going to her home town for the holidays.
5. The director told us not to be late for the meeting with our new partners.
6. He said that he studied at Moscow University.
7.
. , ( ) .
AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS
THAT CHANGED THE FACE OF FARMING
Thresher: When grain was being cut by hand, the method for separating the kernels from the straw was equally slow and labour intensive. Grain was hauled to a barn where it was spread on a threshing floor and either beaten with hand flails or trampled by animals. That knocked the kernels free of the straw, which was then raked away. The remaining mixture was winnowed by tossing it into the air where the wind was relied upon to blow the chaff and lighter debris away from the heavier grain, which fell back onto the threshing floor.
The first threshing machine with a revolving, toothed cylinder and concaves was invented in 1786 in Scotland by Andrew Meikle. Brothers Hiram and John Pitts are credited with invention of the first successful American separator in 1830, as well as with adapting a horse tread power to run the thing. Hiram soon added a fanning mill to the threshing drum to separate and clean the grain at the same time.
Later improvements resulted in machines that extracted virtually all the grain from the straw and thoroughly cleaned it.
VOCABULARY
thresher ;
threshing floor ;
chaff ; ()
debris
| threshing | machine | ||
| toothed | cylinder | ||
concaves ;
separator ;
| fanning | mill ; | |
| threshing | drum | |
2
4
1.
:
Agricultural engineers have knowledge and skillsto function effectively in the agricultural and agribusiness industries.
2.
.
1. You should take medicine three times a day before meals.
2. It is already 7 oclock. We must hurry if we dont want to be late.
3. My grandfather is retired, so he doesnt have to go to work.
4. I cant watch this film. It is too boring.
3.
some, any, no, every .
1. Is there that you want to tell at our meeting?
2. I could hear , it was very noisy.
3. Please, tell us words about methods to increase yields, improve land use.
4. I understand now. Thank you for your explanations and recommendations.
5. Is there who knows foundations of agribusiness?
4.
s , , .
Our director in her mid-thirties. Our director s in her mid-thirties. (is; to be Present Simple)
1. I am sorry, she not in the office today.
2. Our top manager got your e-mails.
3. David wife doesnt have a driving license.
4. What she looking for at my working place?
5. Where the group of Scotland farmers?
5.
(Active Voice Passive Voice) , .
The development of agriculture has played a major role in human history. (Active Voice, Present Perfect). .
1. Crop growth is affected by light, soil, nutrients, water, air, and climate.
2. She has been often spoken about.
3. I shall not be allowed to go there.
4. The chief will show new equipment to a group of visitors.
5. Historically weed control was by hand-pulling of weeds.
6. They clean the equipment every day.
6.
.
1. The director told us not to be late for the meeting with our new partners.
2. Sarah says that she has not seen any letters yet.
3. She asked who was absent.
4. I ask him if he is at the office at four oclock tomorrow.
5.He asked why there were so few people at the conference.
6. They said he had seen this report several days before.
7.
. , ( ) .
AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS
THAT CHANGED THE FACE OF FARMING
Steam Engine: Until the end of the 18th century, American farmers relied primarily upon their own strong backs and arms and those of family members, hired men or slaves. New farm machines then being developed required more power, so oxen, horses and mules were pressed into service. Stationary steam engines were used early on to run cotton gins and mills. The additional power required by improved threshing machines led to the development of portable steam power, which made its first appearance in 1849.
At first, horses were used to haul portable steam engines from job to job. During the 1870s, several inventors developed practical drive systems and the self-propelled steam traction engine became common. Such machines were also used to pull multiple gangplows in large fields.
Gasoline Tractor: Steam tractors required a lot of water and fuel (coal, wood or straw), and a trained engineer at the wheel. The internal combustion engine, developed in the 1890s, offered an alternative to steam. John Froehlich is generally credited with inventing the first successful tractor in 1892. The first commercially successful tractor was built in Charles City, Iowa, by Charles Hart and Charles Parr. Early tractors were big, heavy, awkward and none too reliable, but by 1920 the better ones had survived and ere becoming hugely popular on American farms for heavy tillage and belt work.
VOCABULARY
| steam | engine | |
| Farm | machine | |
| cotton | gin | |
mill ; ;
| threshing | machine | |
| steam | power ; | |
| drive | system | |
self-propelled ;
| traction | engine -; |
gangplow
| gasoline | tractor |
fuel ;
wheel ; ;
internal combustion engine
tillage ;
belt work
