:
, ;
, , 1 , , , ;
, 2, ;
, 4;
, .
[1] .. . . - .: -, 2005 . .
[2] .. . . - .: , 2006 . .
[3] .. . . - .: , 2000 . .
[4] .. , .. , .. . . -., --: . . " ", 2003 . .
1. ( : )
: [1], 2.1-2.6, 3.1-3.4; [2], 1.1-1.5; [3], . III; [4], . 3; .
1. , :
1.1. .
1.2. .
1.3. , .
1.4. ; .
1.5. ; .
1.6. ( ); . , .
1.7. n; .
1.8. ; l, .
1.9. (ml) (ms) ; .
1.10. ; (s-, p- d-). , .
1.11. ; ; .
|
|
1.12. ( , , ).
1.13. ( , , - ).
1.14. . ; .
1.15. , ; ( , , ), .
1.16. ; . , .
1.17. ( - ); ( ) .
1.18. .. .
1.19. .
1.20. ( ); , .
2. :
(. 3.1).
2.1. , 3.2. .
2.2. .
2.3. .. 2.4 2.5.
2.4. .
2.5. - ( ).
2.6. , ; , ?
2.7. .. 2.4 2.5.
2.8. , , .
2.9. , .
3.1
- | . | - | . | - | . | - | . | - | . |
N | P | Cr | F | Na | |||||
Fe | Mn | Ge | Sr | Sb | |||||
C | Si | Ti | Sc | Zr | |||||
In | Co | Al | K | Ga | |||||
Ni | Se | Y | Sn | I | |||||
Mg | As | Tc | Br | Te | |||||
S | Cl | V | Ca | Mo |
|
|
3.2
/ | ( ) | ||
, | |||
( ) | |||
2. ( : )
: [1], 4.1-4.6; [2], 2.1-2.5, 3.1, 3.2; [3], . IV; [4], .4; .
1. , :
1.1. .
1.2. .
1.3. ( ). - .
1.4. ( , , , , , , , ).
1.5. " ". , ; ; .
1.6. s- p- ; .
1.7. ; .
1.8. , .
1.9. , .
1.10. ; s- p- sp-, sp2-, sp3-. .
1.11. () ()2, ()3, ()4.
1.12. .
1.13. ()3 ()2, .
1.14. . (, .).
1.15. , , , ( ).
1.17. , .
1.18. .
2. :
2.1. , 3.1 (. 1), 1:
s- p-: ;
d-: .
|
|
2.2. , 3.3 ( ).
3.3
/ | ||
( . 3.1) | ||
- | ||
( ; ) | ||
( ) | ||
( ) |
2.3. .. 5-7.
2.4. ( ) (. 6).
2.5. . .. 5 7.
2.6. (, , ) ( ) .
2.7. - ( ).
3. .. ( : )
: [1], . 3; [2], 1.4, 1.5; [3], . XI; [4], . 3; .
1. , :
1.1. .
1.2. ( ).1.4. : ) ; ) . , .
1.3. , ( ).
1.4. ; ( ).
1.5. : ) ; ) .
1.6. s-, p-, d- f-.
1.7. , , , - .
1.8. - .
1.9. , .
2. :
(. 3.4).
2.1. 3.4 3.5, , ( ) .
3.4
- | . | - | . | - | . | - | . | - | . |
Li, B, N | Li, Na, K | C, Ge, Sn | In, Sb, Te | As, Sb, Br | |||||
Na, K, Rb | Mg, Si, S | K, As, Br | Zr, Mo, Cd | Si, Ge, Pb | |||||
Be, C, O | Ga, In, Tl | Ca, Sr, Ba | Cr, Mo, W | O, S, Se | |||||
Na, Al, P | K, Ge, Se | Na, Si, Cl | Ge, Se, Br | S, Te, Po | |||||
Mg, Sr, Ba | Pb, Bi, Po | Be, Ba, Ra | P, As, Sb | Al, Ga, Tl | |||||
B, N, F | B, Ga, In | F, Cl, Br | Sn, Te, In | Na, Al, Cl | |||||
Sn, Sb, I | Ca, As, Br | Rb, Sr, Sn | F, Br, I | K, Rb, Cs |
|
|
3.5
- | ||||||||
- - | - | -- | - - | - | - - | |||
2.2. .
2.3. , ( , ) .
2.4. , .
2.5. :
;
.
2.6. , , () , , , ().
2.7. , , ( ). .
4. ( : ; ; )
: [1], . 1, 1.4; [2], 8.3; [3], . II; [4], . II, 2; .
1. , :
1.1. , ( ).
1.2. .
1.3. ; .
1.4. : ; , , , , ; , ; ; (, , ), .
1.5. (): ( ), (, , ) .
1.6. .
1.7. - .
1.8. - () : , , , () ( , , ).
1.9. .
1.10. , ; .
1.11. , , : ) , ) , ) ( ).
|
|
1.12. ( , , ).
1.13. : , , .
1.14. , ( ).
1.15. , , ( ).
2. :
2.1. 3.6 ( 2) ( 3).
:
2.1.1. () , , , ( . 2.1.2).
2.1.2. , , ; , , . 2.1.1.
2.1.3. .
2.1.4. 2 , 3. .
2.1.5. ( ) , .
2.1.6. ( 2), ( 3), .
2.1.7. , , .
3.6
- | - | - | - | ||
1 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
N2O5, Pb(NO3)2, MgOHNO3 | Ca(OH)2 | BeO, NaOH, CO2 | CaO | ||
MgO, H2CrO4, Ba(HSO4)2 | Ba(OH)2 | NO, NH3, N2O5 | H2O |
3.6
- | - | - | - | ||
1 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
FeO, CuCl2, Zn(OH)2 | LiOH | MnOHBr, Br2O5, MnO | HBr | ||
CaCO3, CO2, CaOHCl | HCl | Al(OH)3, Al(NO3)3, AlOHSO4 | KOH | ||
NH3, ZnO, CO | HCl | Cl2O7, NiCl2, MnO | NaOH | ||
Zn(HSO4)2, (ZnOH)2SO4, Na2SO3 | H2SO4 | SO2, CaOHNO3, Na2SiO3 | HNO3 | ||
SnO, MnOHCl, HMnO4 | Na2O | ZnCl2, NaHCO3, MgO | NaOH | ||
Al2O3, AlCl3, Mg(OH)2 | KOH | KHCO3, CuOHCl, SiO2 | HCl | ||
K2O, NaHS, Mg(HSO4)2 | H2SO4 | HCN, Mg(HSO4)2, NH4OH | NaOH | ||
H3PO4, P2O5, K3PO4 | KOH | Li2O, Mg(NO3)2, Pb(NO3)2 | KI | ||
AlOHSO4, Cr(OH)3, NaHCrO4 | NaOH | (CaOH)2SO4, CaSO3, SO | H2SO4 | ||
Ca(HCO3)2, N2O, PbO | Ca(OH)2 | Cr2O3, CaCl2, CrO3 | KOH | ||
MgOHCl, Cl2O, Mg(HCO3) | HCl | HClO4, NiCl2, (OH)2 | NaOH | ||
H2O2, N2O3, KCl | NaOH | Ba(HCO3)2, CO, HMnO4 | Ba(OH)2 | ||
SnO2, AlOHBr2, SiO2 | HBr | Al(OH)2NO3, Al2O3, Mn2O7 | HNO3 | ||
FeOHCl, CO, Fe(OH)2 | HCl | CaCl2, H3PO4, NaOH | Na3PO4 | ||
Zn(OH)2, NaHS, BaCl2 | NaOH | K2SO4, KNO3, SO3 | Ba(OH)2 | ||
CuO, SO3, MgCl2 | H2O | Na2CO3, MnOHCl, Mn2O5 | HCl |
2.2. 3.7 .
:
2.2.1. .
2.2.2. . , .
2.2.3. ( ) .
3.7
H2SO4, Ca(OH)2 | H2TeO3, Ca(OH)2 | ||
H3PO4, NaOH | H2SnO2, NaOH |
3.7
H2S, KOH | H2AsO3, KOH | ||
H2SO3, Ba(OH)2 | H2PbO3, Ba(OH)2 | ||
HCl, Mg(OH)2 | H2MoO4, NaOH | ||
H2SiO3, NaOH | Al(OH)3, NaOH | ||
HBr, Zn(OH)2 | H2S, Sr(OH)2 | ||
H2CrO4, LiOH | Pb(OH)2, KOH | ||
HAlO2, Ba(OH)2 | Zn(OH)2, NaOH | ||
HClO4, Ca(OH)2 | H2BeO2, Ca(OH)2 | ||
H2ZnO2, KOH | H3AsO4, KOH | ||
HNO3, Cu(OH)2 | HCN, Ca(OH)2 | ||
H2CO3, Ca(OH)2 | H2PbO2, Ba(OH)2 | ||
HI, Zn(OH)2 | HF, Ca(OH)2 | ||
HMnO4, Mg(OH)2 | H3AsO3, Pb(OH)2 | ||
Be(OH)2, NaOH | H2ClO2, Ba(OH)2 | ||
H2SeO4, Ca(OH)2 | HCrO2, Sr(OH)2 | ||
HAsO3, Ba(OH)2 | HMnO3, Ca(OH)2 |
1 1-4 " ; ; ; ; ; "
. 4.1.
1.
. (1, 2 3), ( . 3.8), .
. , , , .
, .
, .
, .
3.8 1 (-1)
( ) | ||||
3 | 3s23p1 | 2s2 | 2s1 | |
51 | 5s24d3 | 5s25p5 | 5s25p3 | |
19 | 4s23d1 | 4s24p1 | 4s1 | |
13 | 3s2 | 3s23p1 | 4s23d1 | |
22 | 4s242 | 4s23d2 | 4s24p1 | |
37 | 5s2 | 5s25p1 | 5s1 | |
23 | 4s24p1 | 4s24p3 | 4s23d3 | |
50 | 3s2 | 5s25p3 | 5s25p2 | |
26 | 4s24p6 | 4s23d5 | 4s23d6 | |
28 | 4s23d8 | 4s23d7 | 4s23d9 | |
81 | 6s2 | 6s25d1 | 6s26p1 | |
42 | 5s14d5 | 5s25p4 | 5s24d5 | |
83 | 6s26p3 | 6s25d3 | 6s26p5 | |
82 | 5s25p2 | 6s25d2 | 6s26p2 | |
4 | 2s22p2 | 4s23d2 | 2s2 | |
20 | 4s24p1 | 4s2 | 4s1 | |
84 | 6s26p2 | 6s25d4 | 6s26p4 | |
30 | 4s2 | 4s23d10 | 4s13d10 | |
38 | 4s2 | 5s2 | 5s25p1 | |
21 | 4s2 | 4s24p1 | 4s23d1 | |
31 | 4s23d1 | 4s23d3 | 4s24p1 | |
56 | 4s2 | 6s26p1 | 6s2 | |
55 | 4s2 | 6s2 | 6s1 | |
25 | 4s24p5 | 4s23d5 | 4s23d4 | |
27 | 4s23d8 | 4s23d7 | 4s24p1 | |
39 | 5s25p5 | 5s24d1 | 5s24d7 | |
43 | 5s24d3 | 5s24d5 | 5s24d6 | |
47 | 5s1 | 5s14d1 | 5s2 | |
32 | 4s243 | 5s24d2 | 4s242 | |
33 | 4s243 | 4s23d3 | 4s245 | |
40 | 5s24d2 | 5s24p2 | 5s2 | |
16 | 3s23p5 | 3s23p4 | 4s23d4 | |
34 | 4s24p4 | 4s23d4 | 4s24p5 | |
52 | 5s24d4 | 5s25p4 | 5s25p3 | |
74 | 6s25d4 | 5s24d4 | 6s 26p6 |
2.
. (1, 2 3), ( . 3.9), .
. - . 3.9 ; , .
. , .
, ( ) .
3.9 2 (-2)
( ) | ||||
83 | 0 +3 | 1 +1 | 0 +5 | |
12 | 0 +2 | -2 +4 | 0 +4 | |
23 | 0 +5 | 0 +3 | -3 +5 | |
26 | 0 +8 | 0 +6 | -2 +6 | |
82 | 4 +4 | 0 +4 | 0 +2 | |
51 | 2 +3 | 0 +5 | 0 +3 | |
19 | 0 +3 | 1 +1 | 0 +1 | |
4 | 1 +1 | 0 +2 | 0 +1 | |
13 | 2 +3 | 0 +1 | 0 +3 | |
50 | 0 +4 | 2 +2 | 0 +2 | |
30 | 0 +3 | 0 +2 | 0 +4 | |
38 | 0 +2 | 0 +3 | 0 +1 | |
28 | 0 +8 | 0 +2 | 0 +4 | |
22 | 0 +2 | -2 +4 | 0 +4 | |
37 | -1 +1 | 0 +1 | 0 +3 | |
31 | 0 +3 | 0 +1 | -1 +3 | |
32 | 0 +2 | -2 +4 | 0 +4 | |
35 | -1 +7 | -1 +5 | 0 +7 | |
56 | 0 +1 | 2 +2 | 0 +2 | |
42 | 2 +6 | 0 +4 | 0 +6 | |
55 | 1 +1 | 0 +2 | 0 +1 | |
20 | 4 +4 | 0 +4 | 0 +2 | |
29 | 0 +3 | 0 +2 | 0 +4 | |
21 | 0 +1 | 0 +5 | 0 +3 | |
39 | 3 +3 | 0 +3 | 0 +5 | |
47 | 1 +1 | 0 +2 | 0 +1 | |
25 | 1 +7 | 0 +7 | 0 +3 | |
24 | 0 +6 | 0 +4 | -2 +6 | |
27 | 0 +8 | 0 +3 | 0 +5 | |
43 | 1 +7 | 0 +5 | 0 +7 | |
41 | 0 +3 | 0 +5 | 0 +4 | |
33 | -4 +2 | -3 +5 | 0 +6 | |
8 | -2 +2 | -2 +6 | -2 +4 | |
16 | -6 +6 | -2 +2 | -2 +6 | |
34 | -4 +2 | -2 +6 | 0 +6 |
3.
. (1, 2 3), (. 3.10), .
. ; , , . . .
3.10 3 (-3)
Be, Sr, Ba | |||||
Li, K, Fr | |||||
Sc, V, Fe | |||||
Na, Mg, Si | |||||
K, Ca, As | |||||
O, Se, Po | |||||
Te, S, O | |||||
S, Te, Po | |||||
Cs, Rb, Na | |||||
N, P, Sb | |||||
Mg, Ca, Sr | |||||
S, Te, Po | |||||
As, Sb, Bi | |||||
F, Cl, I | |||||
Li, B, F | |||||
Br, Cl, F | |||||
Ca, Se, Br |
3.10 3 (-3)
Cl, Br, I | |||||
Po, Pb, Tl | |||||
N, As, Bi | |||||
K, Ca, Ge | |||||
Bi, P, N | |||||
B, Ga, In | - | ||||
O, Se, Te | |||||
Ti, Mn, Ni | |||||
B, Ga, In | |||||
Cr, Cu, Zn | |||||
Al, Si, S | |||||
Tc, Mo, Y | |||||
Cl, S, Mg | |||||
In, Ga, B | |||||
N, P, Sb | |||||
In, Sn, Sb | |||||
I, Te, Sn | |||||
Po, Bi, Pb |
4.
. , (1, 2, 3) (. 3.11) .
. - . , , . ( ) . .
3.11 4 (-4)
( ) | ||||
2S | ||||
2 | ||||
Si4 | ||||
C4 | ||||
Ge4 | ||||
TlI3 | ||||
Mg2 | ||||
2Se | ||||
Al3 | ||||
2Te | ||||
As3 | ||||
Be2 | ||||
P3 | ||||
B3 | ||||
C2Cl2 | ||||
C3Cl | ||||
BaCl2 | ||||
N3 | ||||
CCl3 | ||||
In3 | ||||
PCl3 | ||||
N4+ | ||||
CCl4 | ||||
AlCl3 | ||||
BeCl2 | ||||
Sn4 | ||||
Ga3 | ||||
MgBr2 | ||||
SbCl3 | ||||
BaF2 | ||||
SiCl4 | ||||
GaCl3 | ||||
SnCl4 | ||||
CaCl2 | ||||
Pb4 |
5.
. , (1 2) (. 3.12) c , .
. , , - .
, . , , .
3.12 5 (-5)
, ( ) | ||
410 | CH3OH | |
3 | C6H6 | |
N3 | C2H6 | |
512 | HF | |
Cl4 | HCOOH | |
HO-(2)2- | CH4 | |
N2 | CH3NH2 | |
HO-2 | C6H5CH3 | |
614 | HOOC-COOH | |
HCl | C3H8 | |
Br4 | C2H5OH | |
612 | 3-NH-CH3 | |
2N-CH2COOH | C4H6 | |
2S | C5H10 | |
2N-CH2COOH | C4H6 | |
37 | C4H8 | |
37 | C2H2 | |
36 | HBr | |
2 | C7H14 | |
HO-(CH2)3-OH | C2H4 | |
2N-(CH2)2-NH2 | C6H5CH=CH2 | |
I2 | H2SO4 | |
C2H5NH2 | C3H4 | |