A long discussion has been going on concerning the structure of such sentences as He is here, or They are at home, etc. Two views have been put forward.
The traditional view, which had remained undoubted for a long time, was that these were sentences with a simple verbal predicate, expressed by a form of the verb be, and followed by an adverbial modifier of place expressed either by an adverb or by a phrase of the pattern "preposition + noun". According to this view, sentences of this type are grammatically quite different from such sentences as, He is tall, or They are on the move, which of course have a compound nominal predicate consisting of the link verb be and a predicative expressed either by an adjective or noun, or by a phrase of the pattern "preposition + noun".
However, this view began to arouse doubts and it was pointed out that there was no essential difference between the meaning and function of the verb be in one type and in the other; accordingly it would seem that the verb was a link verb in all cases, and whatever followed it was a predicative in all cases, too. It is this view that we find in Prof. A. Smirnitsky's book on English syntax. 1 He considers the group is here in a sentence like He is here, and the group are at home in a sentence like We are at home to be a special kind of predicate, which he terms the adverbial predicate. In this way the types They are in London and They live in London are separated from each other: with the verb be the phrase "verb + preposition +', + noun" is an adverbial predicate, while with the verb live the verb alone is the predicate and the phrase "preposition + noun" is
1 See А. И. Смирницкий, Синтаксис английского языка, стр. 115.
230 Secondary Parts in Detail
an adverbial modifier, that is, a secondary part of the sentence.
The type They are in London is thus brought closer together with the type They are glad, etc., where no doubt arises about the structure of the sentence.
It would seem that this is one of the questions winch do not admit of a definite solution that might be proved to be the only correct one. The answer which this or that scholar will give to the question is bound to be subjective, that is, some personal predilection of his for this or that way of treating language phenomena is sure to play some part in it. For instance, there is a strong argument in favour of the view that the phrase "preposition + noun" is part of the predicate, not a special secondary part of the sentence, and this is the fact that without the prepositional phrase the sentence with the verb be would not be possible: we could not say They are. This is an important point, and a point marking a real difference between the sentences They are in London and They live in London: in the latter sentence we certainly might drop the prepositional phrase, and the sentence would not on that account become impossible: They live is quite a normal sentence, though its meaning is quite different from that of the sentence They live in London: They live means much the same as They are alive.
The sentence They are in London is similar to the sentence They are glad, in so far as in both cases it is impossible to drop what follows the verb be: in both cases the result would be They are, which is impossible.
Those, on the other hand, who would prove that the prepositional phrase is an adverbial modifier, might point out that the phrase in London in both cases shows the place of the action (it answers the question Where?) and that the impossibility of leaving out the prepositional group is irrelevant for defining its syntactic function.
In this way the argument might be protracted indefinitely. In order to arrive at some sort of decision, we must give such an answer as will best suit our view of syntactic phenomena with its inevitable subjective element. So if we have to choose one of the above alternatives, it would seem that the arguments in favour of the group are in London being the predicate are more convincing than those given by the other side. So we will rather prefer to say that in the sentence They are in London there is only the subject and the predicate and no adverbial modifier at all.
A similar question would of course arise in a number of other sentences and the same sort of reasoning would have to be applied there.
Chapter XXIX
THE APPOSITION, DIRECT ADDRESS, PARENTHESES, AND INSERTIONS. LOOSE PARTS
Now we come to speak of some parts of a sentence whose position in its structure has been variously treated by different authors. One of these is the apposition.
THE APPOSITION
It has been often regarded as a special kind of attribute, and sometimes as a secondary part of a sentence distinct from an attribute.
By apposition we mean a word or phrase referring to a part of the sentence expressed by a noun, and giving some other designation to the person or thing named by that noun. If the noun denotes a person, the apposition will often be a word or phrase naming the title, or profession, or social position of the person, etc., as the word Captain in the sentence, For a moment, Melanie thought how nice Captain Butler was. (M. MITCHELL) Concerning the apposition the same question may arise as concerning the attribute, namely, whether it is not part of a phrase rather than of a sentence, and arguments similar to those applied to the attribute may be put forward here.
As to the relation between an apposition and an attribute, there seems to be no convincing reason for considering the apposition a special kind of attribute. An apposition appears to have distinctive features strong enough to establish it as a separate secondary part: it is always expressed either by a noun, or by a phrase centred around a noun, and characterises the person or thing in a way different from that of an attribute. This will become clear if we compare the phrases stone wall and President Roosevelt: the relations between their components are entirely different.
THE DIRECT ADDRESS
There are some elements of the sentence which are neither its main parts, nor any of the usual secondary ones.
These are the direct address and the parenthesis.1
1 The term "parenthesis" has two meanings: it may denote either a part of the sentence or a punctuation mark also called brackets. We will here use the term in its first sense.
232 The Apposition, Direct Address, Parentheses, and Insertions
The direct address and the parenthesis are often said to be outside the sentence, in the sense that they are not an integral part of its structure but are, as it were, added to it "from the outside". 1 This view, however, seems hardly justified and it is based on a rather too narrow view of the structure of a sentence. If we were to take the term "outside the sentence" at its face value, we should have to omit these elements, for example, when asked to read a sentence aloud. This is never done, and should not be done. By "structure of the sentence" we should mean the whole of a sentence, with all the elements which it may contain, with their varying degrees of organic unity. In this sense, then, the direct address is no less a part of the sentence than any other word or phrase.
The direct address is a name or designation of the person or persons (or, occasionally, thing or things) to whom the speech or writing is addressed. We should not include in a definition of direct address the purpose of its use, as is done occasionally in grammars. 2 The purpose may be different in different circumstances, but this does not alter the fact that it is a direct address in all cases.
The direct address may consist of one word or of a phrase. If it is one word, this may be the person's name, or profession, or title, or it may denote a relationship between the person addressed and the speaker. If it is a phrase, this may again be any of the types just mentioned, or it may be some emotional address, whether friendly, as my dear fellow, or hostile, as you swine, you old rascal, etc. In the latter case, it is quite clear that the speaker's purpose in using a direct address is to express his attitude towards the person spoken to, whether it be friendly or otherwise. A few examples from modern fiction will do well to illustrate the various possibilities in the structure and function of the direct address: Heathenish woman, how right they were to give you that outlandish name. (A. WILSON) The adjective heathenish of course expresses very violent emotion on the part of the speaker towards the person addressed. Quite a different emotional note is struck in the following sentence: Jennie, darling, you're looking very pretty," he said. (Idem) The name Jennie as such is neutral in tone, but the second part of the direct address, darling, of course expresses the speaker's emotional attitude toward the person addressed.
The emotional range of the words and phrases used in direct address can of course be very wide indeed, and this deserves close study from a lexical and stylistic viewpoint, but it does not affect the grammatical aspect of the matter.
1 For this view, see, for instance, Грамматика русского языка, т. II, ч. 2, стр. 122.
2 See, for example, M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya, English Grammar, 7th ed., 1951, p. 320.
Parentheses and Insertions 233
PARENTHESES AND INSERTIONS
Besides the direct address, there are other syntactical elements which are usually said to be outside the sentence. Until recently, they used to be all taken together under the name of parenthesis. This term would then cover a considerable variety of syntactical elements. To illustrate this, we will give two extreme examples from modern texts: (1) Of course Mrs Elsing was simply forced to it... (M. MITCHELL) (2).. .he told Nelly that an old friend of his had visited him just as he was about to leave, and for politeness' sake — mere politeness, that frailty in human intercourse — he had brought her with him. (LINKLATER) It will be readily seen that there is a great difference between the additional element in the two sentences: in (1) the phrase of course expresses the speaker's attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence, whereas in (2) the additional element is of a different kind: it carries some extra information about something mentioned in the sentence.
The Academy's Grammar deviated from the usual view and introduced a new category, that of insertions, as distinct from parentheses. According to this grammar, a parenthesis should be defined as follows: words and phrases which have no syntactical ties with the sentence, and express the speaker's attitude towards what he says, a general assessment of the statement, or an indication of its sources, its connection with other statements, or with a wider context in speech. 1
In a vast majority of cases, a parenthesis refers to the sentence or clause as a whole. Sometimes, however, it refers only to a secondary part of the sentence. This may be seen, for example, in the following sentences: I was deeply though doubtless not disinterestedly anxious for more news of the old lady. (H. JAMES) Here the parenthesis doubtless refers only to the connection between not disinterestedly and anxious. Miss Lavish he believed he understood, but Miss Bartlett might reveal unknown depths of strangeness, though not, perhaps, of meaning. (FORSTER) The parenthesis perhaps refers only to the connection between not of meaning and depths. She could only assure herself that Cecil had known Freddy some time, and that they had always got on pleasantly, except, perhaps, during the last few days, which was an accident, perhaps. (Idem) The two parentheses perhaps refer to their special spheres in the sentence, without affecting the main predication expressed in it.
As to insertions, they are described as various additional statements inserted in the sentence. The main carcass of the sentence may be, as it were, interrupted by additional remarks, clarifications,
1 See Грамматика русского языка, т. II, ч. 2, стр. 142.
234 The Apposition, Direct Address, Parentheses, and Insertions
corrections, extra information about something, or remarks containing comparison or contrasting something with what is expressed in the sentence, etc. 1
In analysing these definitions, we must first of all see what the difference between a parenthesis and an insertion is and what principle lies at the bottom of it.
It is obvious at once that the difference between the two types as stated here is, in the first place, semantic: it is a difference in the way the parenthesis or the insertion is connected with the main body of the sentence. The connection in the case of parentheses is much closer than in the case of insertions. This in itself is, however, hardly sufficient to describe the two as different grammatical types. We must therefore see what the syntactical aspect of the matter is. like. This is not evident from the above definitions. Parentheses are described as having no syntactical connection with the sentence, and the insertions as statements inserted in the sentence, which of course amounts to the same thing. So the grammatical difference between the two types is not well brought out.
If the distinction between parentheses and insertions is to be upheld, a difference in their syntactic peculiarities must be found.
The difference would seem to be this. Parentheses are rather close to adverbial modifiers in their relation to the rest of the sentence. They are a part of the sentence and so they cannot be said to have no connection at all with it. Let us, for instance, compare the two following sentences, the first of which has an adverbial modifier at the beginning, while the second begins with a parenthesis: Somehow it would come out all right when the war was over. (M. MITCHELL) Perhaps you know best about that, but I should say — (Idem).
There is a clear difference between the two, yet at the same time there is something they have in common.
An interjection, or a phrase equivalent to an interjection, can also be considered a kind of parenthesis (unless, of course, it is a sentence in itself). Thus, the interjection oh in the following sentence: Oh, but she depended entirely on her voice! (FITCH) can be called a parenthesis, and so can the phrase oh dear in the sentence Oh dear, I hope I shall be a success! (Idem)
Now let us take a sentence with an insertion: And the thought that, after all, he had not really killed her. No, no. Thank God for that. He had not. And yet (stepping up on the near-by bank and shaking the water from his clothes) had he? (DREISER) Here things are quite different. The insertion contains some information about Clyde's movements as he was brooding in the way expressed by the main body of the sentence.
1 See Грамматика русского языка, т. II, ч. 2, стр. 167.
Loose Parts 285
The very fact that an insertion can only come in the middle of a sentence, interrupting its course, while a parenthesis can also be at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, is an important point of grammatical difference between the two.
This is not to say that these distinctions are always equally clear. As in so many other spheres, borderline cases, which show no clear and unmistakable signs of a word or a phrase performing this or that syntactical function, are quite possible here.
LOOSE PARTS
The theory of loose parts of the sentence is another backward element of syntactic theory. Even the terminology in this field is far from certain. The term "loose" is used in English grammars chiefly with reference to the apposition: close apposition and loose apposition are two notions opposed to each other in grammatical theory. Another term which may be used is "detached": detached attributes, detached adverbial modifiers, and so forth. We will use the term "loose".
By loose parts of the sentence we mean such parts as are less intimately connected with the rest of the sentence and have some sort of independence, which finds its expression in the intonation and, in writing, in the punctuation.
The question now is, what parts of the sentence can be loose. The main parts, subject and predicate, apparently cannot be loose, as they form the backbone of the sentence from which other parts may be "detached". Objects cannot apparently be loose either. So the following parts remain: attributes, adverbial modifiers, appositions, and parentheses.
Loose Attributes
These may be expressed by the same kind of words and phrases as the usual attributes. Their peculiarity is, that they are separated from their head word by a pause, by an intonation of their own, and by a punctuation mark (usually a comma) in writing. In actual speech such loose attributes often acquire additional shades of meaning, for example, causal or concessive, which are not expressed by any specific means, lexical or grammatical, and entirely depend on the meanings of the words in the sentence. Loose attributes have a somewhat larger sphere of application than ordinary ones: whereas a personal pronoun can hardly ever be a head word for an ordinary attribute, it can be one for a loose attribute. For instance, in the sentence: Unable to sit there any longer with his mind tormented by thoughts of Tessie, he got up and started walking slowly down the road towards the Fullbrights' big white house (E. CALDWELL)
236 The Apposition, Direct Address, Parentheses, and Insertions
the phrase unable... Tessie is a loose attribute to the subject, which is a personal pronoun. In this case the loose attribute acquires a distinctly causal shade of meaning, and this is due to the lexical meanings of the words (mainly, the words unable to sit and got up). Compare also: Red in the face, he opened his mouth, but in his nervousness his voice emerged a high falsetto. (A. WILSON) Living or dead, she could not fail him, no matter what the cost. (M. MITCHELL) The semantic connections between the loose attribute and the rest of the sentence are different in the two cases, but this depends entirely on the lexical meanings of the words involved. It is especially the conjunction or in the second example that gives the connection a concessive tinge (living or dead — whether he was living or dead, no matter whether he was living or dead).
A rarer case is seen in the following sentence, where the loose attribute refers to the object her: Well read in the art of concealing a treasure, the possibility of false linings to the drawers did not escape her, and she felt round each with anxious acuteness in vain. (J. AUSTEN) It is clear from the position of the form read immediately after well at the opening of the sentence that it is the second participle, and that the whole phrase is a loose secondary member which must be attached to some nominal part in the main body of the sentence. From the lexical meaning of the verb read it is evident that the word referring to the subject of this action must necessarily denote or point to a human being. Now, neither the subject possibility nor the nouns linings and drawers denote human beings, and the pronoun her is the first word to satisfy this condition. Accordingly, well read must refer to her, that is, to the object of the sentence. It must be noted, however, that this usage seems now obsolete.
Loose Adverbial Modifiers
Loose adverbial modifiers are perhaps more frequent even than loose attributes. This is especially true of those adverbial modifiers which do not modify any particular part of the sentence but refer to the sentence as a whole. They are often found at the beginning of the sentence and they point out the place, time, or the general conditions in which the action takes place. This is what we see, for example, in the following sentences: The next day, Scarlett was standing in front of the mirror with a comb in her hand and her mouth full of hairpins... (M. MITCHELL) On the third of July, a sudden silence fell on the wires from the north, a silence that lasted till midday of the fourth... (Idem) In Aunt Pitty's house, the three women looked into one another's eyes with fear they could not conceal. (Idem) Of course a loose adverbial modifier can also appear elsewhere in the sentence: Their men might be dying, even
Loose Parts 237
now, on the sunparched grass of the Pennsylvania hills. (Idem) From such loose adverbial modifiers, which tend to be rather separated from the rest of the sentence, we can, step by step, arrive at parentheses and insertions.
Loose Appositions
As we pointed out above (p. 235), the term "loose" was first used in English grammatical theory with reference to appositions. It would seem that in this field the difference between loose and ordinary parts of the sentence was especially obvious to the authors of grammar books. And indeed, the difference between the type of apposition found in a sentence like As for Uncle Peter, he took it for granted that Scarlett had come to stay (M. MITCHELL) and that in a sentence like These two ladies with a third, Mrs Whiting, were the pillars of Atlanta (Idem) is most evident. The ordinary apposition (Uncle) makes a whole with its head word, it cannot be separated from it either in oral speech (that is, by a pause), or in a written text (that is, by some kind of punctuation mark), whereas a loose apposition (Mrs Whiting) is separated from its head word by these means. Loose appositions can contain various kinds of information about the person or thing denoted by the head word.
Loose Parentheses
Besides those parentheses which consist of one word or of a short phrase and are not separated from the main body of the sentence either in speech or in writing (e. g. perhaps, probably, no doubt, etc.), there are also parentheses consisting of a larger number of words and necessarily separated from the main body of the sentence. Their semantic relation to the sentence is basically the same as with parentheses of the first kind. A few examples will be enough to illustrate the point: They know already, to be sure, and everybody knows of our disgrace. (M. MITCHELL) At all events, I've got as far as that. (FORSTER) Extensive loose parentheses do not appear to be frequent in modern texts.
Chapter XXX
WORD ORDER
SOME GENERAL POINTS
The term "word order" is a singularly unhappy one, as it is based on a confusion of two distinct levels of language structure: the level of phrases and that of the sentence. To approach this problem from a viewpoint doing justice to modern linguistic theory, we should carefully distinguish between two sets of phenomena: the order of words within a phrase and the order of parts of the sentence within a sentence. Here we are again confronted with the problem of the attribute: if the attribute is a secondary part of the sentence, its place falls under the heading "order of the parts of the sentence"; if, on the other hand, the attribute is part, not of a sentence, but of a phrase, its place with reference to its head word must be considered within the theory of the phrase and its parts. Since this question has not been settled yet, we may consider the place of the attribute in this chapter.
All other questions ought to be discussed under the heading "order of sentence parts", but as it is hardly possible to introduce a change and to dismiss a term so firmly established, we will keep the term "word order", bearing in mind that it is quite conventional: what we shall discuss is the order of the parts of the sentence.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
The first question in this sphere is that of the relative position of subject and predicate. Although there are obviously only two possible variants of their mutual position ("subject + predicate", "predicate + subject"), this question has given rise to many discussions and different opinions have been expressed in the matter.
In the light of these discussions we can now state that the main problem is this: should one of the two possible orders be taken to be the general norm of a Modern English sentence, so that all cases of the opposite order come to be regarded as deviations from it, or should the normal order be stated for every type of sentence in particular?
If we take the first view, we shall say that the normal order in English is "subject 4- predicate", and every case of the order "predicate + subject" is to be considered as a deviation, that is, as an inversion. This has been the common view put forward in most grammars until recently.
If we take the second view we will, in the first place, distinguish between declarative and interrogative sentences. The normal order in declarative sentences will of course be "subject + predicate", but the normal order in interrogative sentences will be "pre-
Subject and Predicate 289
dicate + subject". Speaking of interrogative sentences, therefore, we will not say that there is any inversion in these sentences.
We will take the second view, which has recently been very convincingly advanced in several special papers. 1This is justified by the following simple considerations. If we take, for instance, the sentence, Only at sunset did I leave the house (GISSING, quoted by Poutsma), in which part of the predicate (the auxiliary verb do) comes before the subject, we have every reason to say that this order in a declarative sentence is due to the particle only coming at its beginning. If it were not for the particle, there would be the order "subject + predicate", which is the normal one in a declarative sentence: At sunset I left the house. The use of the particle, which gives special prominence to the adverbial modifier at sunset, to which it belongs, has caused the change of the usual declarative order, that is, it has caused an inversion. On the other hand, if we take an interrogative sentence like the following: When did he leave the house? we cannot say that the order "predicate + subject" (to be more exact, "part of the predicate + subject") is due to any special word being used in it. Even if we exclude the adverbial modifier when, which is essential for the meaning of the sentence, we shall get the sentence Did he leave the house? The order cannot be changed without the sentence ceasing to be interrogative and becoming declarative. The order "predicate + subject" is essential for the interrogative character of the sentence.2
Accordingly it is preferable to distinguish between two sets of phenomena: (1) normal order, which may be either the order "subject + predicate", as in most declarative sentences, or "predicate + subject", as in most interrogative and in some declarative sentences, and (2) inverted order, or inversion, which may be the order "predicate + subject" in a special type of declarative sentence, or "subject + predicate" in a special type of sentence characterised in general by the order "predicate + subject" (the latter is a very rare phenomenon indeed).
Up to now we have to some extent simplified the actual facts of the Modern English language. It is time now to point out the special cases which do not come under the general headings so far mentioned.
For one thing, there is a type of declarative sentence in which the order "predicate + subject" is normal. These are sentences stating the existence or the appearance of something in a certain place. The most widely known type of such sentences is the one
1 See M. B. Лазаркевич, Порядок слов в современном английском языке, Автореферат канд. дисс., 1961.
2 We leave aside interrogative sentences of the type Who has come? Whathas happened?, where the order is "subject + predicate". (See p. 241.)
240 Word Order
beginning with the words There is... (we take the two words there and is as constituting together the predicate of the sentence). Examples of such sentences are too well known to need illustration here. Besides the type There is..., there are also sentences beginning with the words There came..., as There came a thunderstorm; There appeared..., and others of the same kind, and also sentences without there, beginning with an adverbial modifier, mostly denoting place, and followed by the predicate and the subject. The verbs most usually found in such sentences are, sit, stand, that is verbs indicating the position of a body in space. For instance: On the terrace stood a knot of distinguished visitors. (HUXLEY) In one corner sat the band and, obedient to its scraping and blowing, two or three hundred dancers trampled across the dry ground, wearing away the ground with their booted feet. (Idem) Something of the same kind is found in the following sentence, where the predicate verb is come: From below, in the house, came the thin wasp-like buzzing of an alarum-clock. (Idem) Cf. also the following sentence: On the corner, waiting for a bus, had stood a young woman, and just as he was about to pass she had dropped a coin which rolled on the sidewalk before him. (BUECHNER) This example differs from the preceding ones in two points: in the first place, the predicate verb is in the past perfect, and secondly, between the adverbial modifier of place (on the corner) there is a participle phrase (waiting for a bus), which is probably best taken as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances, and which is in any case a secondary part of the sentence.
In the following sentence the order "predicate + subject" is sufficiently accounted for by the fact that there are two adverbial modifiers of place at the opening of the sentence. However, there is an additional factor here which is working in the same direction, namely the particle only singling out the adverbial modifiers and making them represent, partly at least, the rheme of the sentence
Only here and there among the neo-gothic buildings was there a lighted window, the sound of a voice, a shout or, in the distance, the noise of lonely footsteps on a stone path. (BUECHNER) Thus it appears that we have here normal order for this type of sentence, reinforced by the influence of only, which would have caused the order "predicate + subject" in any case.
Word order is influenced by an initial only even if the rest of the main clause is separated from it by a considerable amount of intervening words, as in the following sentence: Only when, after a few minutes, he (the monkey) ceased spinning and simply crouched in the pale light, bouncing softly up and down, his fingers digging into the carpet, his tail curled out stiff, did he start to speak to them. (BUECHNER) The particle only here serves to single out the adverbial clause of time beginning with the words when, after a few
The Secondary Parts 241
minutes, and, with the dependent participle constructions, running down to the words curled out stiff. In the sentence we also find the characteristic feature of many absolute constructions (compare p. 260): the subject of the absolute construction is a noun denoting a part of the body of the being whose name is the subject of the sentence (in this particular case it is not the actual name of the being but the pronoun he replacing it).
A much rarer type of inversion is found in the following sentence: Many were the inquiries she was eager to make of Miss Tilney: but so active were her thoughts, that when these inquiries were answered, she was hardly more assured than before of Northunger Abbey having been a richly endowed convent at the time of the Reformation... (J. AUSTEN) The position of the predicative in each of the two first clauses is distinctly emphatic, and the inversion is here a sign of an emotional colouring, which, in a larger context, appears to be ironic.
Among interrogative sentences a well-known special type are sentences having an interrogative pronoun either as subject or as attribute to the subject; we might say, in a generalising way, having an interrogative pronoun within the subject group, as in the following examples: What is your business with me this morning? (SHAW) Who in this house would dare be seen speaking to you ever again? (Idem) Oh, who would be likely to see us anyhow at tins time of night? (DREISER) In the way of word order, then, such sentences correspond to declarative sentences. Inversion, that is, the order "predicate + subject", in such sentences appears to be entirely out of the question.
THE SECONDARY PARTS
The Object
The term "inversion" has sometimes been used to denote an unusual position of a secondary part of the sentence, that is, of an object or an adverbial modifier. That, however, is undesirable, since it might lead to misunderstandings and seriously hamper the study of word order. To illustrate our point, let us compare the following two sentences: This he knew very well, and, A pretty paradise did we build for ourselves. (THACKERAY, quoted by Poutsma) In both sentences the object stands at the beginning, which is not its usual place. After this, in the first sentence, come the subject and the predicate in their normal order for a declarative sentence, whereas in the second sentence the predicate comes before the subject. It is natural to say that in the first sentence there is no inversion, while in the second sentence there is one. Now, if we were to use
242 Word Order
the term "inversion" for every case of the object occupying an unusual place, we should have to say that in the first sentence also there is inversion in some sense, which would certainly lead to confusion. We will therefore not apply the term "inversion" to a secondary part of the sentence.
It is well known that the usual place of the object is after the predicate, and if there are two objects in a sentence, their order is fixed: if they are both non-prepositional, the indirect object comes first and the direct object next; if one of the objects is prepositional, it comes after the non-prepositional. The tendency to place the object immediately after the predicate verb should not however be taken as an absolute law. Some other part of the sentence often does come in between the predicate verb and its object.
This intervening phrase will probably in most cases be a loose part of the sentence, as in the following extracts: At the age of eight Ferdinando was so large and so exuberantly healthy that his parents decided, though reluctantly, to send him to school. (HUXLEY) In the visitors' book at Crome Ivor had left, according to his invariable custom in these cases, a poem. (Idem) In the former example the phrase though reluctantly introduces some shade of meaning, weakening the effect of the verb decided, and it could not conveniently come at any other place in the sentence. In the latter example the rather extended phrase according to his invariable custom in these cases might have come between the subject Ivor and the predicate had left. The sentence would then run like this: In the visitors' book at Crome Ivor, according to his invariable custom in these cases, had left a poem. The effect of the original text, with the loose part separating the object from the predicate, appears to be that of postponing the mention of the poem and thus creating some tension since the words immediately following the predicate fail to make clear what it was that he left in the visitors' book.
An object may also be separated from the predicate by several intervening elements of the sentence. This is the case, for example, in the following passage: He recognised suddenly in every face that passed him the reflection of what appeared a similar, lonely, speechless concern not with the station and the mechanics of arriving, departing, meeting someone, or saying good-bye, but with something more vital still and far beneath such minor embassies. (BUECHNER) Owing to the adverbial modifier suddenly and the prepositional object with the attributive clause belonging to it, in every face that passed him, the direct object the reflection (with the other parts of the sentence belonging to it) is at a considerable distance from the predicate recognised. However, no misunderstanding is to be feared here, as there is no other noun that might be taken for the direct object in the main clause: the only noun that does come in here is the noun face, but it is too obviously connected with the preposi-
The Secondary Parts
tion in that introduces it (along with its attribute every) to be taken for a direct object. This example, and many others of a similar kind, show that the principle "the object is bound to come immediately after the predicate verb" does not always hold good.
Quite the same sort of thing is seen in our next example, taken from the same novel: He seemed to see in each figure that hurried by a kind of indifference to all but some secret, unexpressed care having little to do with their involving context. (BUECHNER) Besides the role of rheme that belongs to the object in the sentence, there is another factor which may have been responsible for the order of words: the group centred around the object kind (or kind of indifference) is rather long, and placing it immediately after the predicate, before the phrase in each figure that hurried by, would result in a rather awkward rhythmical pattern of the sentence.
A non-prepositional object can be separated from the predicate even by two secondary parts, as in the following example: She arose and turned on a lamp to read the letter again. He told and told well in it a little story. (BUECHNER) Here both the adverbial modifier well and the prepositional object in it intervene between the predicate and the non-prepositional object.
An object may also be separated from the predicate by a parenthesis and a clause of time: She had seen, of course, when she spoke, only Tristram. (BUECHNER)
Adverbial Modifiers
The position of adverbial modifiers in the sentence is known to be comparatively more free than that of other parts. However, there is some difference here between types of modifiers. Those which are most closely linked with the part of the sentence they modify are the ones that denote the frequency or the property of an action. They come between the subject and the predicate, or even inside the predicate if it consists of two words — an auxiliary and a notional verb, or two elements of a compound predicate.
We cannot, however, say either that adverbial modifiers of these types cannot stand elsewhere in the sentence, or that adverbial modifiers of other types cannot occupy this position. Occasionally an adverbial modifier of frequency will appear at the beginning of the sentence. Occasionally, on the other hand, an adverbial modifier of another type appears between subject and predicate: Catherine, for a few moments, was motionless with horror. (J.AUSTEN) Now Meiklejohn, with a last effort, kicked his opponent's legs from under him... (LINKLATER)
The more usual position of the adverbial modifiers of time and place is, however, outside the group "subject + predicate + object",
244 Word Order
that is, either before or after it. Which of the two variants is actually used depends on a variety of factors, among which the rheme plays an important part. If the main stress is to fall, for instance, on the adverbial modifier of time, i. e. if it contains the main new thing to be conveyed, this adverbial modifier will have to come at the end of the sentence, as in the following extract: "Only think, we crossed in thirteen days! It takes your breath away." "We'll cross in less than ten days yet!" (FITCH) If, on the other hand, the main thing to be conveyed is something else, the adverbial modifier of time can come at the beginning of the sentence. It would, however, be wrong to say that the adverbial modifier, when not bearing sentence stress, must come at the beginning. It can come at the end in this case, too, and it is for the intonation to show where the semantic centre of the sentence lies. This may be seen in sentences of the following type: Fleda, with a bright face, hesitated a moment. (H. JAMES)
These are problems of functional sentence perspective, which we have briefly discussed above (p. 191 ff.). The position of adverbial modifiers of time and place has also to be studied in the light of this general problem.
An adverbial modifier can also occupy other positions in the sentence; thus, the auxiliary do of the negative form can be separated from the infinitive by a rather lengthy prepositional group acting as a loose secondary part of the sentence, which is probably best classed as an adverbial modifier of cause: He was perhaps the very last in a long line of people whom Steitler at this time did not, for an equally long line of reasons, want to see, but, half perversely, half idly, he turned his steps in the direction of his friend's room. (BUECHNER) This may be counted among cases of "enclosure", with one part of a sentence coming in between two elements of another part.
An adverbial modifier also comes in between two components of the predicate in the following sentence: ...he was acting not happily, not with an easy mind, but impelled to remove some of the weight that had for months, even through the excitement over Katherine, been pressing him down. (SNOW) The analytical form of the past perfect continuous tense had been pressing is here separated by the intervening adverbial modifiers, for months and even through the excitement over Katherine, which come in between the two auxiliaries had and been. This does not in any way impede the understanding of the sentence, as the verb had does not in itself give a satisfactory sense and either a verbal (to complete an analytical verb form) or a noun (in the function of a direct object) is bound to follow. So there is some tension in the sentence. Analytical forms admit of being thus "stretched" by insertion of adverbial modifiers. However, they do not admit insertion of any objects, and this may
The Secondary Parts 245
be another objective criterion for distinguishing between the two kinds of secondary parts of the sentence. 1
The usual statement about adverbial modifiers of time always coming either at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, and outside the subject-predicate group anyway, is much too strict and is not borne out by actual usage. Here are some examples of adverbial modifiers of time coming either between the subject and the predicate, or within the predicate, if it consists of more than one word: (1) Bessie, during that twenty-four hours, had spent a night with Alice and a day with Muriel. (CARY) (2) Sir Peregrine during this time never left the house once, except for morning service on Sundays. (TROLLOPE) (3) His grandson had on each day breakfasted alone, and had left the house before his grandfather was out of the room; and on each evening he had returned late, — as he now returned with his mother, — and had dined alone. (Idem) In the first of these examples the adverbial modifier of time is separated by commas from the rest of the sentence, and so must be accounted a loose secondary part of it. But in the second example a similar adverbial modifier, with the same preposition during, is not separated by commas, so the looseness does not appear to have any essential significance here. In our last example the adverbial modifier on each day in the first clause comes between the two elements of the predicate verb form, while in the second clause a similar modifier, on each evening, stands before the subject. The reason for the position of the adverbial modifier in the first clause (where it might also have stood at the beginning of the clause) probably is, that the subject of the clause, his grandson, represents the theme, whereas the adverbial modifier, on each day, belongs to the rheme, together with the predicate and all the rest of the clause,
We may also compare the following sentence: She had not on that morning been very careful with her toilet, as was perhaps natural. (TROLLOPE) Here the adverbial modifier of time also comes in between two elements making up the analytical form of the link verb. The variant On that morning she had not been very careful with her toilet... would certainly also be possible, but there would probably be some greater emphasis on the adverbial modifier, which would have tended to represent the theme of the sentence, as if the sentence were an answer to the question: What happened on that morning? Standing as it does within the predicate, the adverbial modifier is more completely in the shade.
1 Objects can, as is well known, be inserted between elements of an analytical verb form in German, and they could also appear in this position in earlier English, namely in Middle English and even in Shakespeare's time. Compare the line from "Hamlet": Mother, you have my father much offended, which would not be possible in present-day English.
246 Word Order
The adverbial modifier of lime also stands between the subject and the predicate in the following sentence: But I saw that he was distracted, and he soon jell quiet. (SNOW) In this example, too, it remains in the shade.
As a contrast to these sentences we can now consider one in which the adverbial modifier of time stands at the beginning and is marked off by a comma, so that it is apparently a loose modifier: Three days later, I was surprised to be rung up by Charles. (SNOW) Now in this case it could not come in between the elements of the predicate, probably because it announces a new situation (not on the day described so far, but three days later) and this new element of the situation cannot be brought out properly if the part of the sentence containing it is left in the shade, as it certainly would be between the elements of the predicate.
This is also seen in the sentence, In a few minutes she returned, her eyes shining, her hair still damp. (SNOW) The adverbial modifier in a few minutes could not possibly come between the subject and the predicate. It might have come after the predicate, and would in that case have been more strongly stressed, as if the sentence were an answer to the question, When did she return? That is, the adverbial modifier of time would have represented the rheme, or at least part of it. As it stands in the original text, the adverbial modifier rather makes part of the theme, but it is not so completely in the shade as an adverbial modifier standing between the subject and the predicate (or within the predicate, for that matter) necessarily is.
Attributes
We pointed out above (see p. 238) that the position of the attribute as a part of the sentence is not certain. In this section we assume that it is a part of the sentence, and treat it accordingly.
The position of an attribute before or after its head word largely depends on its morphological type. An attribute consisting of a prepositional phrase can only come after its head word. As to adjectival attributes, their usual position is before their head word, but in some cases they follow it. Let us consider a few examples of this kind. Darkness impenetrable and immovable filled the room. (J. AUSTEN) It has been long noticed that adjectives with the -ble suffix are apt to come after the noun they modify. This may be partly due to their semantic peculiarity: they are verbal in character, expressing as they do the possibility (or impossibility) for the person or thing denoted by the head word to undergo the action denoted by the stem from which the adjective in -ble is derived (in our example these stems are: penetr-, cf. the verb penetrate, and mov-
The Secondary Parts 247
respectively). This should not be taken to mean that adjectives of this type are bound to follow their head word, but the peculiarity of their meaning and structure makes it possible for them to do so. Postposition also occurs in certain stock phrases, such as from times immemorial, the best goods available, cousin german, etc., which are specially studied in lexicology. Apart from these cases, postposition of an attribute is possible in poetic diction and is a distinctive stylistic feature. Compare, for example, Byron's lines: Adieu, adieu! my native shore / Fades o'er the waters blue, or again, Enough, enough, my yeoman good, / Thy grief let none gainsay. Nowhere but in poetry would such phrases with postpositive attributes as the waters blue, or my yeoman good be possible.
An attribute expressed by an adverb (which does occur, though not too often) may come before its head word. Thus, the adverb then used as an attribute, as in the sentence She was of the tallest of women, and at her then age of six-and-twenty... in the prime and fulness of her beauty (THACKERAY, quoted by Poutsma) can only be prepositive, and besides it always stands between the definite article and the noun (a case of enclosure, see above, p. 177). It may be noted that the adverb then, when used in this manner, is an opposite of the adjective present, which occupies a similar position in such contexts as the present state of affairs.
Direct Address and Parentheses
The position of these parts of the sentence is probably more free than that of all other parts. Thus, a direct address can come in almost anywhere in the sentence, as will be seen from the following few examples: "Child, I'll try." "Oh, bat, Dotty, we can't go." "Look here, Renny, why don't you come and work for me?" "Her smelling salts, Scarlett!" "What does that mean, Mr Kennedy?" (all from M. MITCHELL) "Instantly, Lieutenant, instantly." (SHAW)
Much the same may be said about parentheses. Some types of parenthesis usually come in between two constituent parts of the predicate: this is especially true of parentheses expressed by modal words, such as perhaps, probably, certainly, doubtless, and by the phrases no doubt, without doubt, in fact.
However, a parenthesis may also refer to one part of the sentence only, and is then bound to come before that part, e. g. "Tell me," she added with provoking and yet probably only mock serious eyes and waving the bag towards Roberta, "what shall I do with him?" (DREISER) Here the parenthesis probably belongs to the attribute only mock serious, and it would have to go if that attribute were dropped.
248 Word Order
Particles
If a particle belongs to a noun connected with a preposition, the particle will, as often as not, come between the preposition and the noun (this would be absolutely impossible in Russian). Here are a few examples of this use: The younger, Leander, was above all young, it seemed to him, charmingly, crashingly so, with only a slightly greater than usual grace... (BUECHNER) She could not help thinking as the young man disappeared into the other room for ice, of the earlier evening at Tristram's apartment, also lit by only one lamp and with something of the same vague sense of anticipation in the dark air. (Idem) In this latter sentence it would perhaps be possible to put the particle before the preposition, that is, to write,... lit only by one lamp. However the original text appears to be somehow more expressive than the altered one here proposed. As to the former example, the corresponding change, that is, the variant crashingly so, only with a slightly greater than usual grace, would imply a considerable change of meaning in the sentence; in the original text, only clearly refers to slightly (even though it is separated from the adverb slightly by the indefinite article), and only slightly forms a definite sense unit. In the variant only with a slightly greater than usual grace the connections of the particle are quite different: it would here mean that the only remark necessary to make the description exact is the one about the slightly greater grace. Thus the particle only would here acquire a kind of connecting power, bringing it close to a conjunction. As will have been seen from these two examples, much will depend on the concrete grammatical and lexical context in which the particle and its head word appear.
Sometimes a particle refers to the word or phrase immediately preceding it. This can only happen if the particle stands at the end of the sentence or at least at the end of a section of the sentence marked by a pause in oral speech and by a comma or other punctuation mark in writing. This usage seems to be restricted to more or less official style, e. g. This book is for advanced students only.
Sometimes, however, a particle comes before the predicate or between two elements of the predicate, while it refers to some secondary part of the sentence standing further ahead. In these cases, then, the position of the particle is determined, not by its semantic ties, but by the structure of the sentence (it is joined on to the predicate whatever its semantic ties may be). Examples of such usage are numerous enough, e. g. He only arrived at three o'clock. The semantic connection obviously is not only arrived but only at three o'clock (not earlier). Generally speaking, the particle might refer to the word arrived, and then the sense would be 'at three o'clock he only arrived, and he did not do anything else at
The Secondary Parts 249
the time'. Now, though this sense is conceivable, it is certainly much less natural or probable than the sense 'he arrived only at three o'clock, not earlier', and so a reader is much more likely to take the written sentence in this latter way. A similar analysis might be given of other examples of this type. Other particles do not seem to be used in this way.
On the whole, the problem of word order proves to be a highly complex one, requiring great care and subtlety in the handling. As far as we can see now, different factors have something to do with determining the place of one part of a sentence or another. It is the scholar's task to unravel this complex by weighing the influences exercised by each factor, and their mutual relations. It is possible, for instance, that two factors work in the same direction — and then the result can only be one. It is also possible that different factors work in different directions, and then one of them will take the upper hand. This manifests itself, among other things, in the fact that grammatical order may limit the possibilities of functional sentence perspective. In this case some other means has to be found to render the intended meaning as clearly as possible.
Chapter XXXI
