Modal verbs are defective verbs since they lack many forms
characteristic of regular verbs: they have no -s in the third per-
son singular in the present tense and no verbals, so they have no
analytical forms; some of them lack the form of the past tense.
Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:
1) they are followed by the infinitive without the particle to
(with the exception of ought, to have and to be);
2) their interrogative and negative forms are built up without
the auxiliary do.
Most of the modal verbs have more than one meaning. Each of
their meanings is characterized by a specific usage.
1) Some of the meanings may be found in all kinds of sentenc-
es; others occur only in affirmative or interrogative or negative
sentences;
2) Different meanings may be associated with different forms
of the infinitive simple and perfect (both in the active and pas-
sive forms), continuous and perfect continuous;
3) If the modal verbs have more than one form (can could-,
may might, will would, also the verbs to have and to be),
their different meanings are not necessarily found in all those
forms.
The use of modal verbs is in most cases independent of the
structure of the sentence: the use of this or that modal verb is de-
termined by the attitude of the speaker towards the facts con-
tained in the sentence. In this case we may speak of the free or in-
dependent use of modal verbs.
e.g. He admires you. He thinks you're a little beauty. Perhaps I
oughtn't to have told you that.
He may be in the hall now, waiting for me.
But sometimes the use of certain modal verbs depends on the
structure of the sentence, mainly on the type of the subordinate
clause, and occasionally also on the lexical character of the predi-
cate verb in the principal clause. This may be called the structural-
ly dependent use of modal verbs.
e.g. It is obviously necessary that an investigation should be
made.
Christine feared she might not be met at all.
As the difference between the active and the passive forms of the infinitive is of
no consequence for the meaning of the modal verb, there is no need to illustrate these
forms separately. However, instances where the differentiation between the active
and the passive infinitive is important, are dealt with specialty.
When the use of modal verbs is structurally dependent, their
meaning is sometimes weakened; in fact, it may be quite vague.
This may be accounted for by the fact that these verbs become
rather part of the structure than bearers of individual meaning.
It is important to take into account one more feature peculiar
to modal verbs. They all show that a certain action is represented
as necessary, possible, desirable, doubtful, etc. from the point of
view of the speaker. Consequently, modal verbs are generally used
in conversation, In past-time contexts they may be found only in
reported speech or thought. Thus You should have done it before,
or He might be wrong, or It must be true cannot be possibly found
in narration unless they are used after He thought that.... He
said that.... He knew that..., etc.
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The only exceptions are the past tense forms could, would,
had, was and might which may be used not only in conversation
but also in narration.
e.g. Walker was illiterate and could not sign his name.
When I looked at her I saw tears in her eyes. So I had to tell
her the truth.
Can
76. The modal verb can has the following forms: can the
present tense (e.g. He can speak English) and could the past
tense. The form could is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts
as a form of the Indicative Mood (e.g. He could speak English
when he was a child), b) in present-time contexts to express unre
ality, or as a milder and more polite form of can, or as a form
implying more uncertainty than can (e.g. He could speak English
if necessary. Could I help you? Could it be true?) Compare with
the Russian : ,
(unreality). He ? (politeness) He
"! (uncertainty).
77. Can has the following meanings:
1) ability, capability,
e.g. I can imagine how angry he is.
He can read a little French.
This meaning may also be expressed by to be able. The phrase
can be used in all tense-forms if necessary.
In the meaning of ability and capability can occurs in all kinds
of sentences.
e.g. She can play a few simple tunes on the piano.
Can you write with your left hand?
I cannot (can't) promise you anything.
In this case can is followed by the simple infinitive (see the ex-
amples above) and reference is made to the present. But depending
on the context it may also refer to the future.
e.g. We can discuss your paper after lunch.
However, if the time reference is not clear from the context or
if it is necessary to stress that the action refers to the future,
shall/will be able is used.
e.g. He will be able to write to us from Portugal.
I shall be able to earn my own living soon.
The form could may be used in past-time contexts and in this
case it is followed by a simple infinitive. It is a form of the Indica-
tive Mood here.
e.g. He could read a great deal during the holidays.
Could the boy read before he went to school?
After what had happened I couldn't trust him.
The form could may also be used in present-time contexts in
combination with the simple infinitive to express unreality with
reference to the present or future.
e.g. "I don't want my daughter to be a typist." "Why not? She could
be secretary to some interesting man." ( )
You could articulate more distinctly with that cigarette out
of your mouth, ( )
As the form could may be used in two ways (see 76) it is
Usually understood as expressing unreality with reference to the
present or future unless there are indications of past time in the
sentence or in the context. Thus the sentence She could paint
landscapes will be understood as .
If there is no indication of past time in the context but the speak
er wishes to refer the action to the past, was/were able is used in-
stead of could to avoid ambiguity.
e.g. She was able to explain the mystery.
In combination with the perfect infinitive could indicates that
the action was not carried out in the past.
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e.g. She could have explained the mystery. -
, ( )
2) possibility due to circumstances,
e.g. You can see the forest through the other window.
We can use either the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect
Continuous in this sentence.
In this meaning can is found in all kinds of sentences. It is fol-
lowed by the simple infinitive and it refers the action to the
present or future.
e.g. You can obtain a dog from the Dogs' Home at Battersea.
Can we use the indefinite article with this noun?
We can't use the indefinite article with this noun.
In past-time contexts the form could is used. It is followed by
the simple infinitive in this case.
e.g. You could see the forest through the other window before the
new block of houses was erected.
The form could in combination with the simple infinitive may
also express unreality with reference to the present or future.
e.g. You could see the house from here if it were not so dark.
In combination with the perfect infinitive, could indicates that
the action was not carried out in the past.
e.g. You could have seen the house from there if it had not been
so dark.
Note. When could is used with reference to the past it denotes only the ability
or possibility of performing an action but not the realization of the action. There
fore when a realized or an unrealized action is expressed, could is naturally not
used. If an action was carried out in the past, it is expressed with the help of to
manage or to succeed (the latter is used in literary style).
e.g. He managed to settle the difficulty.
He succeeded in attaining his aim.
If an action was not realized in the past it is expressed with the help of to fail,
or to manage and to succeed in the negative form.
e.g. He failed to reach the peak.
He did not manage to settle the difficulty.
Compare with the Russian: ( ) -
. In his youth he could swim across the Volga.
But: . managed to swim
across the Volga last year. Also in: ( )
. failed (didn't manage) to swim across the Volga last year.
As for to be able, it may, depending on the lexical character of the infinitive
or the context, express either the ability or possibility of performing an action or
the realization of that action.
e.g. He was able to speak English well. ( / --
.)
was able to get the book from the library. ( -
.)
