Заменители существительных 6 страница

К невещественным существительным, которые обычно употребляются в английской научной литературе с предлогом by, относятся слова типа: «метод», «методика», «процедура», «процесс», «реакция», «модификация» и очень обширная группа слов, указывающих на отдельные этаны эксперимента, например: путь, ход, сдвиг, обработка, перегонка, превращение, расщепление, присоединение, отщепление и т. п.; гидролиз, синтез, анализ, пиролиз и т. п.; восстановление, окисление, нитрование, фильтрование и т. п.; гидрирование, галоидирование,

фосфорилирование, формирование, арилирование, метилирование и т. п.^-разгонка, возгонка (сублимация) и т. п.; хроматография, рентгенография, спектрография, излучение, облучение и т. п.

Например:

Tantalum penaiodide was prepared in part by the method of Alexander and Fairbrother and in part by the more convenient method described by Rolsten. All the halides were purified by fractional sublimation and sealed in vacuo into fragile hook-ended ampoules from which they were sublimed into the reaction system. Uridine-2',-3', cyclic phosphate (0,17 mmole) was prepared by the ethyl chlorofor-mate method and dried overnight. The halogenouridylic acids were then converted into the respective 2',3' cyclic phosphates and polymerised by methods previously described. The cis-syndiketone was reduced by the Ponndorf reaction in propan-2-ol with aluminium iso-propoxide as described above, affording a crude cream-coloured solid. In this case the intermediate butyric acid derivatives are apparently not stabilised by reaction with methanol.

The following compounds were pure commercial samples, or were prepared by standard metathetical reactions: lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium caesium, ammonium, tetramethylammonium, silver, thallous, thorium, lead, mercurous, and mercuric iodates. The corresponding ammonium salt was prepared by a similar procedure. Potassium hexaiodatotitanate was prepared by a modification of the literature method. Conversion of the acid (V; R = H) Into 2,3-benzoxanthone (XIV) was carried out by two routes. Thus the v (CH) absorption of ethyl propiolate shifts and broadens considerably as compared with the hexane spectrum, and this is supported by the observed shift in v (CO). Potassium borohydride (4 g.) was added to the solution of the periodate-oxidised polysaccharide and, after 3 days, excess of borohydride was destroyed by treatment with Amberlite resin IR-120(H⁺), the solution was concentrated, and the reduced periodate-oxidised polysaccharide (3.5 g.) was precipitated by the addition of acetone (3 vol.) by fractional distillation and collected over narrow ranges. In a trial experiment, a paper chromatogram of dextran degraded by acetolysis showed the expected result, that the «nigerose» component was now present in a much greater quantity than was formed by aqueous acid hydrolysis. Most of the latter was removed by distillation. The acid was removed by addition of a few ml. of 0.5% methanolichydrogen chloride, followed by distillation with repeated additions of methanol. The final polymer was readily hydrolysed by distillation with water. Most studies of the kinetics of reactions involving two proton transfers have been made indirectly, e. g., by racemisation, isotope exchange, or halogenation. This assignment of structure was supported by cleavage of the substance by the boron trifluoride-ether complex to material shown by its ultraviolet absorption spectrum to contain a lOb, 11-double bond. The [most likely explanation for the

increased entropies is provided by built-in salvation,'» suggested by Bun-nett and Morath. The yields of major products formed by pyrolysis of n-octyl nitrate at 116° and 132° are shown in the Table. Concentrations of oligosaccharide solutions were measured by acid hydrolysis to glucose, unless otherwise stated. The solvent was removed from the dried ethereal extract to leave a thick brown oil (3,8 g.), which was purified by repeated sublimation at 100—120°/0,5 mm, affording colourless prisms, m. p. 84—86°, identical with the product of the previous experiment.

4,5,5-Trimethyl-l-pyrroline (2 g.) was converted into its hydro-chloride by treatment with the equivalent amount of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The isomaltose component was removed by chro-matography on thick paper to give chromatographically pure material. The mixture of sugars was separated by chromatography on thick filter paper into glucose. The compound was shown by infrared spectra to be identical with the trans-anti-ketone. This was confirmed by infrared spectroscopy.

§ 137. После предлога by дополнение часто выражается инговой формой (герундий, см. § 103).

Например:

The hydrochloride of the di-iodo-compound is very sparingly soluble in boiling 2N-hydro-chloric acid, and traces of 3'-iodo-L-thyronine are easily removed from 3',5'-di-iodo-L-thyronine by treatment with hydrochloric acid. З'-iodo-L-thyronine was conven-tiently prepared by treating thyronine with an excess of iodine and removing the di-ido-thyronine as its hydrochloride.

Slow linear sweep of the field for phase-sensitive detection was obtained by feeding the output from a Miller sweep generator into the control amplifier of the power unit. The purity of the stable isotopes was established by analysing the solutions of the dissolved metal beads, but only limited quantities could be spared for the analysis and the limits of impurity given in Table 2 reflect this. After the solution had been kept for 17 hr., the acid was removed by stirring in barium carbonate, and the precipitate was removed in a centrifuge. Identification of this material was confirmed by comparing its infrared spectrum with that of authentic material.

Potassium hydrogen di-iodate (bi-iodate) was obtained by crystallising equimolar quantities of the constituents from hot water, and deuteroiodic acid from a solution of iodine pentoxide (dried for several days at 200—210") in deuterium oxide.

Anhydrous nickel iodate was prepared by heating together nickel nitrate and iodic acid in 8N-nitric acid, and ferric iodate by adding ferric nitrate in 4N-nitric acid to boiling aqueous iodic acid.

Potassium hexaiodatomanganate (IV) was obtained by boiling together freshly precipitated manganese dioxide, iodic acid, and potassium iodate, according to Berg's method.

The alkaloids, recovered by extraction with chloroform (4x 300 с. с.), were converted into their hydrochlorides by dissolving them in methanol (150 с. с.), adding concentrated hydrochloric acid (20 с. с.), and precipitating the salts with ether.

§ 138. Когда процессы выражаются не существительными, а глаголами в личной форме страдательного залога [например, is (are, was, were) oxidised, а не oxidation, oxidising; is (are, was, were) treated, а не treatment, treating, вещества, которые исполь-зуются для осуществления этих процессов, часто вводятся предлогом with.

Например:

When 3-nitropurin or 2-hydroxy-3-nitroanthra-l,4,9,10—di-quinone is oxidised in methanol with lead dioxide or potassium permanganate 2-hydroxy-3-nitroacetyl-l,4-naphthaquinone (III) is formed directly.

After being stored overnight, the solutions were neutralized with acetic acid and evaporated. The products were only partly soluble in water, so the deacetylation was repeated to give material completely soluble in water. This was treated with Biodeminrolit resin and evaporated to a syrup.

(a) 3-Nitroalizarin. When 3-nitroalizarin was oxidised in methanol with lead dioxide the first relatively stable product was a methyl ether (I) of 3-nitropurpurin, which on hydrolysis with aqueous hydrobromic acid was converted into 3-nitropurpurin (I). Solvent was removed and the polymer was precipitated with 1: 1 ether-cyc-lohexane (3 с. с.), then dissolved in water and neutralised with tri-butylamme. The trisaccharide (10 mg.) was reduced with sodium bo-rohydride (20 mg.) for 24 hr. When it was hydrolysed with 1,5 N — sulphuric acid for 6 hr. the glucose liberated amounted to 65% of that from an equivalent weight of unreduced trisaccharide. The acetates were extracted with chloroform (3 X 100 ml), and the combined extracts were washed with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution and water and then dried (Na₂S0₄). In a trial experiment the dextran was hydrolysed with dilute sulphuric acid to degrees of conversion into glucose ranging from 20 to 51 %.

Optical spectra were measured with a Gary recording spectropho-tometer. The column was eluted with water to remove glucose.

§ 139. Встречается также употребление предлогов with и by в тождественных контекстах, что, по-видимому, указывает на отсутствие сознательной дифференциации между орудием действия и непосредственным деятелем.

Например:

The acid polysaccharide (3g.) was hydrolysed by N-sulphuric acid (50 ml.) at 100° for 4 hr. Since chromatography showed several oligosaccharides, both neutral and acidic, the mixture was

rehydrolysed with N-sulphuric acid (30 ml.) at 100° for 2 hr. In a similar reaction but with decomposition by water and ice, sulphur (0,7 g.) was obtained from the ethereal and thiolbenzoic acid from the aqueous layer. In a similar reaction decomposition with water afforded an unidentified oil from the ethereal layer and benzoic acid from the aqueous layer.

Thus 1 mol. of dibenzoyl disulphide with 3 mols. of phenylmag-nesium bromide or phenyl-lithium afforded triphenylrnethyl thi-olbenzoate after decomposition by acid. Decomposition with ammonium chloride in case of the magnesium compounds and with water in case of lithium compounds gave, as expected, the triarylmethanols.

2-Phenylethanol has been found to be oxidised by ammonium metavandate to benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, and formic acid under conditions in which (a) dehydration to styrene did not occur and (b) phenylacetic acid was not oxidised, whilst (c) benzyl alcohol was rapidly oxidised. This olefin is only slowly oxidisedby vanadium (V), a:id it cannot be the immediate precursor. Mild oxidation of either y-oxo-y-2-xanthenylbutyric acid (I) or its methyl ester by potassium permanganate in aqueous acetone yielded y-oxo-y-2-xanthonylbutyric acid (II; R=H) or its methyl ester respectively.

Oxidation of the sugar with periodate gave 0,06 mol. of formaldehyde. Reduction of the sugar with potassium borohydride followed by oxidation with periodate gave 0.87 mol. of formaldehyde.

It may be emphasised that in dioxan solution no significant phosphorylation of 5'-hydroxyl groups by diphenyl phosphorochlo-ridate occurred under the conditions employed. The present paper deals with the chemical oxidation of 3-nitro-alizarin and -purpurin by lead dioxide and potassium permanganate in methanol containing some acetic acid; in the following paper we compare the course of this oxidation with the photochemical degradation. Oxidation of the sugar with sodium metaperiodate in the presence of sodium hydrogen carbonate gave 0.04 mol. of formaldehyde. Hydrolysis of the diketo-ester (II; R = Me) with 5% alcoholic potassium hydroxide gave the diketo-acid (II; R = H), but treatment with 10% aqueous sodium hydroxide led to a phenolic acid. When this procedure failed to provide crystalline sulphone, the mixture was decomposed by ice and dilute hydrochloric acid, and the ethylene dichloride layer was separated and dried after being washed successively with water, dilute sodium hydroxide solution, and water again.

In control experiment, treatment of e-galactan with N-sulphuric acid at room temperature for 30 min. afforded no detectable reducing sugars. However, Kulkarni and co-workers obtained mixtures of cis- and trans-3, 4-diols on reduction of dihydrofisetin and dihydro 4'-methoxy-6-methylflavonol by lithium aluminium hydride. Bognar and Rakosi found that the reduction of dihydroflavonol by hydrogen over a supported palladium catalyst gives the trans-3,4-diol in

both solvents. Reduction of the derived methyl ester methyl glyco-sides with potassium horohydride, followed by hydrolysis, gave galactose only. Oxidation of the disaccharide with periodate gave only traces of formaldehyde, whereas oxidation of the acidic disaccharide alcohol (from reduction by borohydride) gave 0,85 mol. of formaldehyde, a result consistent only with the presence of a 1,5- or 1,6-linkage. Conversion into the methyl ester methyl glycosides, reduction with potassium borohydride, and hydrolysis gave arabirio-se and galactose (chromatography). Similar treatment of the disaccharide alcohol (from reduction by potassium borohydride) gave only arabinose. Aliquot (arabinose) were withdrawn at intervals, excess of periodate was destroyed by ethylene and the liberated acid was titrated with 0,015 N-sodium hydroxide. The ether was removed and replaced by xylene, and the solution heated at 90° overnight. In contrast to the rapid reaction of these anilides, the quinoxalines (VI a-d) and the pyrazine (VII) were all unchanged by concentrated sulphuric acid at room temperature. In pyridine solution the 5'-hydroxyl group was phosphorylated by P¹P²-dibenzyl P¹P²-diphenyl pyrophosphate, tetra-allyl pyrophosphate, and tetrabenzyl pyrophosphate in that order of reactivity. The normal wave-guide connected to the heat-break was warmed by a small heater, to prevent condensation of moisture.

§ 140. Нередко вместо предлогов by и with употребляется сочетание by means of.

Например:

The magnetic field was measured by means of a marginal oscillator proton resonance meter.

The second harmonic of the frequency of the resonance was measured by means of a T74 frequency meter, manufactured by Telemechanics Ltd.

The values of «g» were calculated directly, the microwave frequency being measured by means of a Philips wavemeter, type RP4290X.

Exinite and micrinite, which are richer and poorer respectively than vitrinite in hydrogen, differ in density and can be fracti-oned, though with difficulty, by means of liquids differing in specific gravity.

§ 141. Следует также отметить, что предлог by входит в состав некоторых глагольных сочетаний и отвечает на вопросы: кем? чем? (например: to be followed by, to be accompanied by, to be provided by, to be substituted by, to be affected by, и т. п.). Например:

То, что за раскрытием эпоксидного кольца не следует перемещение брома к алкоксидному кислороду, не является

неожиданностью. «That opening of the epoxide ring is not followed by displacement of the bromine by the alkoxide oxygen is not surprising*.

Реакция сопровождалась бурным выделением тепла. «The reaction was accompanied by violent evolution of heat».

Водородные атомы СН₂-групп замещаются углеводородной группой обычным способом. «The hydrogen atoms of the CH₂ groups are substituted by the hydrocarbon group in a regular manner».

На результаты повлияло наличие примесей. «The results were affected by the presence of impurities».

На скорости и молекулярные веса влияет понижение температуры. «The rates and molecular weights are affected by lowering the temperature».

Еще примеры: The d. c. magnetic field was provided by an 8" pole piece magnet with a 2 1/2" gap. Power for the magnet was provided by a stabilised power supply. The magnet and power unit were manufactured by Newport Instruments Ltd.

§ 142. Употребление в одном предлож eja ии страдательного и действительного залога. В английской научной и технической литературе нередко можно встретить в одном предложении страдательный и действительный залог. Например:

Кислород берут прямо из цилиндра и он проходит через уменьшающий клапан цилиндра. «Oxygen is drawn directly from a cylinder and passes through the cylinder reducing valve».

Четыре стеклянные трубки длиной в 135 лш. входят в отверстия и на них насажены резиновые наконечники с маленьким отверстием в центре. «Four glass tubes 135 mm long, fit into the holes and are sealed w^rith rubber washers containing a small central hole».

Это соединение могло бы немедленно разложиться с образованием двух молекул этилена или его можно было бы разложить столкновением с молекулой этилена. «The compound might decompose immediately into two molecules of ethylene, or be decomposed by collision with an ethylene molecule».

Трисахаридную фракцию частично гидролизовали кислотой и она дала пять дисахаридных соединений. «The trisaccharide fraction was partly hydrolyzed with acid and gave rise to five disac-charide compounds».

CONTINUOUS TENSES

§ 143. Continuous Active. Нередко в разных языках для выражения одних и тех же смысловых значений употребляются разные средства. То, что в одном языке выражается грамматически, в другом языке передается лексически, отдельными словами, и наоборот. Выражение лексических отношений в

одном языке грамматическими формами в другом языке можно назвать «грамматизацией лексики». Типичным примером грамма-тизации лексики служат Continuous Tenses, не имеющие грамматических параллелей в русском языке. Continuous Tenses выражаются формулой to be -(- инговая форма смыслового глагола в настоящем, прошедшем или будущем времени, в действительном (Active) и страдательном (Passive) залоге и употребляются тогда, когда упор делается не столько на само действие, сколько на время его протекания.

В научной и технической литературе формы Continuous в основном употребляются для указания на то, что действие происходит в настоящее время, сейчас, в данное время, или что один процесс протекает во время осуществления другого процесса. В первом случае время протекания иногда передается не только грамматической формулой to be + инговая форма, но, одновременно, и словами типа to day, presently, во втором случае указание на время следует из слов типа wbile, when, as.

Например:

Хотя этому методу в настоящее время уделяется большое внимание, его возможности и недостатки еще недостаточно изучены. «Although the method is receiving marked attention (to-day), its possibilities and limitations have not yet been sufficiently explored».

Сферические соединения становятся сейчас все более употребительными при конструировании стеклянного оборудования. «The spherical joint is becoming more and more useful in the construction of glass equipment».

В настоящее время отсутствует убедительное доказательство этого эффекта. «Definite proof to that effect is (presently) lacking».

Раньше думали, что у бактерии полностью отсутствуют половые признаки, но сейчас появляется все больше данных о том, что они могут вступать в некоторого рода половое общение. «It used to be thought that bacteria were entirely without sex, but evidence is mounting up that they may undergo some kind of sexual process».

Вероятно, возможно получить большое число данных, которые в настоящее время отсутствуют в этой области. «It might be possible to obtain a great deal of information that is presently lacking in this field».

В схеме (а) чистый продукт выводится сверху, в то время как более высококипящий компонент только входит в колонку. «In (a) pure material is being taken off at the top, while the higher boiling component is just starting into the column».

Подобно многим другим открытиям, этот новый процесс был случайно обнаружен в то время, когда Реппе пытался окислить винилкарбазол в N-карбоновую кислоту. «Like many other discoveries, this new process resulted accidently while Reppe was trying to oxidize vinyl carbazole to the N-carboxylic acid».

Во время протекания реакции имеют место изменения в реакционной смеси. Субстрат исчезает, образуются продукты реакции и обратная реакция препятствует прямой. «While the reaction is proceeding, changes are taking place in the reaction mixture. Substrate is disappearing, the products of the reaction are being formed, and the forward reaction may be opposed by reverse process».

§ 144. Continuous Passive. Формула: to be + being + III форма смыслового глагола.

Употребляется тогда, когда нас интересует не столько само действие, сколько время его протекания, и когда подлежащее пассивно (см. § 133). Например:

В любой момент в процессе полимеризации образуются полимеры всех степеней полимеризации. «At any instant in a polymerisation process, polymers of all different degrees of polymerisation are being formed».

Иногда необходимо остановить мешалку термостата во время проведения измерений. «It is sometimes necessary to stop the stir-rer of the thermostat while the measurements are being made-».

В то время как бомбу собирают или открывают, используют шаблон на столе. «A bench jig is used whilst the bomb is being assembled or opened».

PERFECT TENSES

§ 145. Perfect Tenses. Формула: to have + /// форма смыслового глагола.

Употребляются при обозначении действия, закончившегося к определенному моменту в настоящем, прошедшем или будущем времени, когда нас интересует не столько само действие, сколько его результат или соотнесенность с другим действием. В перфекте стоит действие, которое произошло раньше.

§146. Present Perfect обозначает действие, законченное к моменту речи, когда нас интересует не время его совершения, а сам факт завершения или его результат. Например:

В удаленных друг от друга частях Австралии открыто большое число небольших урановых месторождений. «A large number of small uranium occurrences have been reported over widely separated parts of Australia».

Отмечено, что различные высшие алкилкетоны не вступают в реакции. «A variety of higher-alkyl ketones have been mentioned as not reacting».

Было отмечено, что щелочь способствует цис-восстановлению стероидных аналогов. «Alkali has been noted to promote cis-reduc-tion of steroid analogues».

По-видимому, условия плохо подобраны. «The conditions seem to have been poorly chosen».

11 А. Л. Пумпянский

Эти интересные соединения почти не исследованы. «These interesting compounds have been little investigated».

Было сделано много попыток приготовить это соединение из исходных продуктов помимо бензола. «There have been many attempts to prepare this compound from starting materials other than benzene».

Существование водородной связи хорошо известно и было достоверно установлено физическими измерениями.

«The idea of hydrogen bonding is well known, and has been definitely established by physical measurements».

Сеньор разработал математические формулы для подсчета числа изомеров в этих особых случаях. «Mathematical formulas have been developed by Senior for calculating the number of isomers in these special cases».

Штрауманис разработал сложную систему регулирования температуры. «Straumanis has built an elaborate temperature-control system».

Полинг разработал два различных метода для расчета элек-троотрицателъностей по его шкале. «Pauling has given two alternative ways to calculate the electronegativities on his scale».

Несмотря на эти трудности, Эльвинг и сотрудники разработали методику для анализов смесей кислот и диэтиловых эфиров. «In spite of these difficulties Elving and co-workers have developed a procedure for the analysis of mixtures of the acids and diethyl esters».

Опубликована статья Понгратца, рассматривающая этот вопрос. «A paper by Pongratz dealing with this matter has appeared».

Примеры типов а и b отмечены для сильных кислот, а примеры типов Ь и с приведены для катализаторов гидроизомеризации. «Examples of types a and d have been recorded for strong acids, and examples of types b and с have been recorded for hydroisomerization catalysts».

§ 147. Present Perfect часто употребляют с наречиями неопределенного времени типа: recently — «недавно», just — «только что», already — «уже», never — «никогда», «когда-либо», long — «давно», to date — «до сих пор» и т. д.

Например:

В настоящее время для каждодневного (стандартного) использования принят этот метод вместо обычного метода Дюма. «This method has recently been adopted as an alternative to the conventional Dumas procedure for routine use».

Только что было открыто, что производные 1,2-бензантрацена являются карциногенными. «1,2-benzanthracene derivatives have just been discovered to be carcinogenic».

§ 148. Нередко такие наречия, как «уже», «до сих пор», «еще не», имеющиеся в русских предложениях, на английский язык

не переводятся, так как они подразумеваются в самой форме Present Perfect (грамматизация лексики, см. § 143). £ Например:

Никель, медь и их сплавы уже изучались различными исследователями,¹ интересующимися каталитическими свойствами этих металлов и их твердых растворов. «Nickel, copper and their alloys have been studied by various investigators interested in the catalytic properties of these metals and their solid solutions».

Уже опубликовано подробное обсуждение различных результатов, полученных в предыдущих"работах «A thorough discussion of the various results obtained in the preceding work has been published».

Этот простой результат больше не является правильным, ибо, как мы уже видели, уровень Ферми понижается сам по мере повышения температуры, как показано на схеме рис. 17. «This simple result no longer holds true, for, as we have seen, the Fermi level itself falls as the temperature rises, as shown schematically in Figure 17».

До сих пор в литературе описано очень мало химических методов для получения цис-а-ненасыщенных кетонов. «Few chemical methods for the preparation of cis-aip-unsaturated ketones have been reported in the literature».

Еще не описаны реакции этих соединений с различными заместителями. «No reactions of these compounds with different sub-stituents have been described».

До сих пор этот метод не был широко применен, но было показано, что он способен обеспечить чистые поверхности как платины, так и железа. «The method has not been widely used, but has been shown capable of giving clean surfaces of both platinum and iron».

§ 149. Present Perfect часто употребляется при составлении краткой аннотации, предшествующей статье (Abstract), и кратких выводов, помещаемых после статьи (Summary)). Например:

Abstract

The compounds N-allyl-a-pyrrolidone, N-allyl-e-caprolactam, and N-allyl-a-piperidone have been synthesized and described. In а study of the polymerization of N-allyl-pyrrolidone and N-allylcap-rolactam in the presence of free radical initiators it was found that N-allylactam is not activated by benzoyl peroxide, but with 5—10% azoisobutyrodinitrile it undergoes stepwise polymerization to produce low yields of the dimers and trimers. The copolymerization of N-allylpyrrolidone with vinyl acetate, methyl methacrylate, and methyl acrylate has been investigated.

11*

Summary

The ultraviolet, infrared, and luminescence spectra of ethyl-cellulose preparations with varying carboxyl group contents have been investigated. The luminescence spectra and intensities have been found to change as the preparations are irradiated with ultraviolet light. The changes are particularly marked in the initial steps of irradiation allowing one to determine the very first stages of degradation of ethyl cellulose molecular chains. Light sensitivity has been shown to increase with the carboxyl content of the ethylcellulose specimens. Neutralization of the groups by Pd and Na cations leads to light stabilization of the compounds. It has been suggested that the presence of carboxyl groups in the ethyl cellulose compounds accelerates the ultraviolet-induced photochemical reactions. This is in accord with the earlier assumption of the part played by carboxyl groups in the thermooxidative degradation of ethylcellulose.

Abstract

Complex formations between dimethyl sulphide, diethyl sulphide, and tetrahydrothiophen and niobium pentachloride and pen-tabromide, and tantalum pentachloride, pentabromide, and penta-iodide has been studied. The following crystalline 1: 1 complexes have been isolated, and their compositions established by analysis and vapour-pressure measurements.