1) (α %) , (N.), (N.).
α = N. ∕ N. ∙ 100, %
50%.
50%.
| , ||.
H2O
Ba(OH)2 → Ba2+ + 2OH-
| , ||.
H2O
Fe(OH)2 ↔ FeOH+ + OH- I
FeOH+ ↔ Fe2+ + OH- II
2) (.) .
H2O
NH4OH ↔ NH4+ + OH-
. = [NH4+] ∙ [OH-] ∕ [NH4OH]
. , , .
||
, (-).
|| ( ||) ||,
H2O
Sr(OH)2 → Sr2+ + 2OH-
|| ( ||) ||, d .
H2O
Ni(OH)2 ↔ NiOH+ + OH- I
NiOH+ ↔ Ni2+ + OH- II
, (+).
, 50%. : HNO3, HCl, H2SO4 ( . ).
H2O
H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42-
, 50%. : H2CO3, H2S, HCN .
H2O
H2S ↔ H+ + HS- I
HS- ↔ H+ + S2- II
, , , . .
||
H2O
Zn(OH)2 ↔ ZnOH+ + OH-
ZnOH+ ↔ Zn2+ + OH-
( ).
H2O
Zn(OH)2 ≡ H2ZnO2 → 2H+ + ZnO22-
OH-
, . .
H2O
Na2SO4 → 2Na+ + SO42-
H2O
CrOH(NO3)2 → CrOH2+ + 2NO3-
|
|
|
H2O
Ca(HCO3)2 → Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
H2O
K3[ Fe(CN)6 ] → 3K+ + [ Fe(CN)6 ] 3-
.
|| :
)
)
) .
) 3 + 2Ѳ → Ѳ2 + 2 + 2
) 3 + 2+ + 2Ѳ- → 2+ + 2Ѳ- + 2 + 2
) 3 + 2+ → 2+ + 2 + 2
; |, , . , || || |, , . , || (↔).
1 10!* . 3%, 4 105 3, 80% .
≈ 70% . 12% || .
|| :
) || (, , ||, ): , , , ;
) (2500 3000 3 / ):
- 10%
- 8 %
- 82%
||
1. . .
()2 → + 2 ↑ ()
2. . 1000 .
t0
Ѳ2 ∙ 62 ↔ Ѳ2 + 62
3. . . .
||
. , . , . . , .
( ), , (H2S, H2Se, H2Te, ).
| , 0 | , 0 | |||
| H2O | ||||
| H2S | - 85,6 | - 60,3 | ||
| H2Se | - 65 | - 49 | ||
| H2Te | - 42 | - 2 | ||
| H2Po | - 36 | + 35 |
|
|
|
1 / 3 4 0 . , . 0,9 / 3. .
(). + -.
2 ↔ + + -
2 10 - 9 %, .
,
. = [ +]∙[-] ∕ [2] = const T= const
, [2] .
. ∙ [2] = 2 = [ +] ∙ [-]
2 -
2 = . ∙ [2] = 1,8 ∙ 10−16 ∙ 55,56 = 1 ∙ 10−14 ( ∕ )2 = const
, (+) - - .
[ +] = [-] = √ 2 = √ 10−14 = 10−7 ∕
, + -
[ +] > 10−7 (10−6, 10−5 100)
, + -
[ +] < 10−7 (10−8, 10−9 10−14)
| || | (| |), || .
= - lg [ +]
| +, / | ||
| [ +] = [-] = 10−7 | ||
| [ +] > 10−7 (10−6, 10−5 100) | < 7 | |
| [ +] < 10−7 (10−8, 10−9 10−14) | >7 |
, .
| ||
| 7,4 - 7,45 | |
| 6,35 6,85 | |
| 0,9 1,1 | |
| 7,4 7,5 |
, || , || . || , : .
||, || | | || ( ), || || . , .
CO3 +H2O +CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
2
Ca(HCO3)2 → Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
2
CaSO4 ∙ 2H2O → Ca2+ + SO42- + 2H2O
MgCO3 ∙ CO3 +2 H2O +2 CO2 → Mg2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
2
KCl ∙ MgCl2 ∙ 6H2O → K+ + Mg2+ + 3Cl- + 6H2O
, , .
.
- .
|
|
|
- (, , ).
Mg2+ Ca2+ (, (Mg2+ + Ca2+) ∕ )
|| , |:
< 4 /
4 8 /
8 12 /
> 12 /
|| || || , , . , || .
.
.
t0
Ca(HCO3)2 → CO3 ↓ + H2O +CO2↑
. .
, , . .
) ( )
Ca(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 à 2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O
)
Ca(Mg)Cl2 + Na2CO3 → Ca(Mg)CO3 ↓ + 2NaCl
)
3MgSO4 + 2Na3PO4 → Mg3(PO4)2 ↓ + 3 Na2SO4
, Na+ H+ Ca2+ Mg2+ .
, ( ).
|| || , || , ( ||, ).
. , , :
1. , || :
NaOH + HCl → H2O + NaCl
||
2. , || :
Mg(OH)2 + H2SO4 → 2H2O + MgSO4
||
3. , || :
2KOH + H2SO3 → 2H2O + K2SO3
||
4. , || :
2NH4OH + H2CO3 → 2H2O + (NH4)2CO3
||
, .
1. , , , , . .
NaCl + H2O ↔ NaOH + HCl
Na+ + Cl- + H2O ← Na+ + OH- + H+ + Cl-
. | = 7
2. , || :
2MgSO4 + 2H2O ↔ (MgOH)2SO4 + H2SO4
|
|
|
2Mg2+ + 2SO42- + 2HOH ↔ 2MgOH+ + SO42- + 2H+ + SO42-
Mg2+ + HOH → MgOH+ + H+
. | < 7
3. , || :
K2SO3 + H2O ↔ KHSO3 + KOH
2K+ + SO32- + HOH ↔ K+ + HSO3- + K+ + OH-
SO32- + HOH → HSO3- + OH-
. | > 7
4. , || :
) NH4CN + H2O → NH4OH + HCN
NH4+ + CN- + HOH → NH4OH + HCN
) (NH4)2CO3 + H2O → NH4HCO3 + NH4OH
2NH4+ + CO32- + HOH → NH4+ + HCO3- + NH4OH
NH4+ + CO32- + HOH → HCO3- + NH4OH
) Fe(CH3COO)2 + H2O → FeOHCH3COO + CH3COOH
Fe2+ + 2 CH3COO- + HOH → FeOH+ + CH3COO- + CH3COOH
Fe2+ + CH3COO- + HOH → FeOH+ + CH3COOH
) Al2(CO3)3 + 6H2O → 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3 H2CO3
, ( HCO3-, FeOH+ ).
, , . | . |. | || .
.
|| :
Me+nAm- + mn H2O ↔ mMe(OH)n+ nHmA
Me+A- + H2O ↔ MeOH + HA
+ -
- -
:
[] []
. = -------------------- (1)
[] [2]
. . [2] .
(1):
[] []
. = -------------------- (2)
[]
|| (2) : , .
, , , | , .
[ Co(NH3)4Cl2]NO3
(1891|.) .
.
.
( ) . () . ( 0 n+).
, , . , () ().
[ Zn(NH3)4]2+
| ↑↓ | |||||||
| ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | |||
| ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | |||||
| ↑↓ | |||||||
| ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | |||
| ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | |||||
| ↑↓ |
Zn0
Zn2+
3
s p d f
H
..
NH3 4 H: N: ↑↓
..
H
[Zn(NH3)4]2+
| ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | |||||
| ↑↓ | |||||||
| ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | |||
| ↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑↓ | |||||
| ↑↓ |
|
|
|
s p d f
. Zn2+ , .
NH3 , . . ( ). , . ( , , , ). (, ) (C2O42-; 32-; SO42-; SO32-; PO43-) .
, () .
, Na3[CoC2O4(NO2)4] (3+) , NO2- , C2O42- - .
