Computer-oriented data processing systems or just computer data processing systems are not designed to imitate manual systems. They should combine the capabilities of both humans and computers. Computer data processing systems can be designed to take advantage of four capabilities of computers.
1. Accuracy. Once data have been entered correctly into the computer component of a data processing system, the need for further manipulation by humans is eliminated, and the possibility of error is reduced. Computers, when properly programmed, are also unlikely to make computational errors. Of course, computer systems remain vulnerable to the entry by humans of invalid data.
2. Ease of communications. Data, once entered, can be transmitted wherever needed by communications networks. These may be either earth or satellite-based systems. A travel reservations system is an example of a data communications network. Reservation clerks throughout the world may make an enquiry about transportation or lodgings and receive an almost instant response. Another example is an office communications system that provides executives with access to a reservoir of date, called a corporate data base, from their personal microcomputer work stations.
3. Capacity of storage. Computers are able to store vast amounts of information, to organize it, and to retrieve it in ways that are far beyond the capabilities of humans. The amount of data that can be stored on devices such as magnetic discs is constantly increasing. All the while, the cost per character of data stored is decreasing.
4. Speed. The speed, at which computer data processing systems can respond, adds to their value. For example, the travel reservations system mentioned above would not be useful if clients had to wait more than a few seconds for a response. The response required might be a fraction of a second.
Thus, an important objective in the design of computer data processing systems is to allow computers to do what they do best and to free humans from routine, error-prone tasks. The most cost-effective computer data processing system is the one that does the job effectively and at the least cost.
The doctor said: You can take long walks early in the morning
Can (could) you give me some medicine for my headache?
You cant visit him, he has an infectious disease.
4. Unreality
could the Subjunctive II Form
The Indefinite Infinitive refers the action to the present or future.
The Perfect Infinitive indicates the action which was not carried out in the past
affirmative
interrogative
negative
would be able to do smth;
would have been able to do smth
Why dont you want the doctor to come? He could prescribe some medicine to bring down the fever (if he came).
You could have stayed in bed for a few days. But you didnt.
5. Uncertainty, doubt, astonishment
Can/could
The Indefinite Infinitive refers the action to the present or future.
The Continuous Infinitive refers the action to the present.
The Perfect Infinitive refers the action to the past.
The Perfect Continuous Infinitive denotes an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking
interrogative (general questions)
Is it possible that ?
Do you believe that ?
Can (could) he be her husband?
He is twice as old as she is.
Can (could) she still be running a high temperature?
Can (could) he have been operated on?
Can (could) they have been keeping to a diet for a few years?
Its hardly possible that; I refuse to believe that; I dont think its possible that; its next to impossible that; I dont believe that; I doubt that; Its incredible (doubtful) that
He cant (couldnt) be her husband.
She cant (couldnt) be still running a high temperature.
He cant (couldnt) have been operated on.
They cant (couldnt) have been keeping to a diet for a few years.
What can (could) you know of such things?
What can (could) they be speaking about?
How can (could) you have made such a mistake?
What can (could) he have been doing all this time?
Notes
I. Remember the following set phrases with the verb can:
1. CANT/COULDNT + HELP + DOING smth
e.g.: She cant help crying. .
2. CANT/COULDNT +BUT + INFINITIVE (without to)
e.g.: I cant but ask about it. , . They couldnt but refuse him. , .
II. The Ukrainian sentences of the type ? , . ? , are rendered in English in the following ways:
1. Can (could) he have failed to notice you? 2. Can (could) he dislike it here? 3. Can (could) nobody have seen him do it? 4. Can (could) he have never got my letter? 5. Can (could) it be that he didnt notice you? 6. He cant (couldnt) have failed to notice you. 7. He cant (couldnt) dislike it here.
MAY/MIGHT
Meaning
Forms of the MV
Forms of the infinitive
Kinds of sentences
Some other ways of expressing the same meaning
Sentence patterns
1.
a) Permission
b) Request
c) Prohibition
a) may the Present Tense
b) might the Past Tense
a) may the Present Tense
b) might the Past Tense
c) might the Subjunctive II Form
may not
a) I have got two historical novels. So you may take one of them.
b) Mother said you might take some oranges.
a) May I see him in the hospital on Tuesday?
b) He asked me if he might rest for an hour.
c) Might I spend the weekend with you?
- May I have a look at the picture?
- No, you may not. I dont want you to.
2. Possibility due to circumstances
a) may the Present Tense
b) might the Past Tense
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
a) Lets meet at five oclock at the post-office if the place and time are convenient to everybody. We may get there by bus.
b) He said he might get to work by the Metro.
3. Unreality
might the Subjunctive II Form
Perfect Infinitive
affirmative
If he had arrived an hour earlier, he might have had a good night rest.
Luckily I didnt join them in their walk. It was very windy and I might have caught cold.
4. Disapproval or reproach
might the Subjunctive II Form
Indefinite Infinitive
Perfect Infinitive
affirmative
Your child is shivering with cold. You might be more attentive to him. Tell him to put on his jacket.
You answered his invitation with cold refusal. You might have invited me to this lecture.
She looks pale. She may (might) be ill, but I think she may/might not have a high temperature.
I think the doctor may/might be examining the patient now.
Nick is missing today. He may/might have been taken ill.
She may have been staying in bed for a week.
NEED
Meaning
Forms of the MV
Forms of the infinitive
Kinds of sentences
Some other ways of expressing the same meaning
Sentence patterns
1. Necessity
need
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
(not typical)
interrogative
necessary
Need I answer the question?
2. Absence of necessity
neednt
1. Indefinite Infinitive
2. Perfect Infinitive (expresses an action which was performed though it was necessary)
negative
There is no need to do it.
Its not necessary to do it.
There is no necessity to do it.
The teacher neednt explain such simple things. The pupils know them.
We neednt have brought our grammar books today. We are having a class in phonetics instead.
Notes
1. When rendering in Russian use neednt have done to show that the action was performed though it was not necessary. Use didnt have to do to indicate that the action was not performed as there was no obligation. e.g.: He neednt have bought the book (but he did). It is available at the library. I didnt have to buy the textbook (and I didnt) as I had it at home.
2. In negative sentences negation is not always associated with the verb need , it may be found elsewhere in the sentence, e.g.: I dont think we need continue our talk. They need hardly discuss the problem again.
MUST
Meaning
Forms of the MV
Forms of the infinitive
Kinds of sentences
Some other ways of expressing the same meaning
Sentence patterns
1. Obligation, necessity with no freedom of choice or from the speakers point of view
must in present or future time contexts; in past time contexts in Indirect Speech
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
interrogative
to be obliged to, its necessary for smb to do smth
If you have a new heart attack you must be taken to hospital. What must he do to keep feet?
He said he must go to the dentist.
2. Prohibition
mustnt
Indefinite Infinitive
negative
to be forbidden
Students mustnt stay away from classes without a good reason.
3. Emphatic request or advice
must
mustnt
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
negative
You mustnt miss this film. Its worth seeing this film.
You must drop in at the chemists on your way home.
4. Supposition implying assurance, strong probability
only in the affirmative form in affirmative and negative sentences
probably, evidently, surely, no doubt, undoubtedly, its clear that, in all probability
He must be too old to wander about the city so long.
They must be admiring the beautiful flowers in Hyde Park now.
They must have been watching swans and ducks floating on the pond for an hous.
She must have got used to their customs and traditions.
Notes
1. Absence of necessity is expressed by neednt.
e.g.: Must I mention all those facts in my report?
- Yes, you must. They are important.
- No, you neednt. They are of no use.
2. Must is not used in the negative form to express supposition implying assurance. This meaning is expressed by: a) Evidently (probably) they didnt come to any agreement; b) They must have failed to come to any agreement; c) They must have misunderstood us; d) He must never have guessed the truth; e) No one must have told them the truth.
3. Must is not used with reference to the future. In this case its equivalents are used.
e.g.: She is likely (unlikely) to come.
TO HAVE (GOT) TO
Meaning
Forms of the MV
Forms of the infinitive
Kinds of sentences
Some other ways of expressing the same meaning
Sentence patterns
1. Obligation, necessity arising from circumstances
have (has) to;
had to;
shall/will have to; have (has) got to (in colloquial English),
Do (does) have to?
Did have to?
Have (has) got to? (coll.)
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
interrogative
to be obliged to
If you dont take care of yourself, youll have to consult a doctor.
I wondered how long I had to stay in hospital.
Do Russian people have to pay for medical care?
Did you have to wait for us?
Have I got to wake him up for the medicine?
2. Absence of necessity
dont (doesnt) have to;
didnt have to;
havent (hasnt) got to
Indefinite Infinitive
negative
neednt to
You dont have to stay in here with me, if it bothers you. You havent got to be operated on, have you?
Notes
didnt have to do indicates that the action was not performed as there was no obligation
e.g.: He didnt have to water the flowers (and he didnt). It was raining all day long.
TO BE TO
Meaning
Forms of the MV
Forms of the infinitive
Kinds of sentences
Some other ways of expressing the same meaning
Sentence patterns
1. Obligation arising out of a plan, an arrangement
to plan; to make a plan; to arrange; to agree; to decide
Today I am to go to the post-office. When are you to go there?
Yesterday I was to have gone to the post-office to send a parcel, but I wasnt able to. (a planned action was not carried out)
2. An order, an instruction
-||-||-
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
negative
If your letter contains anything valuable you are to register it.
3. Possibility
-||-||-
Indefinite Infinitive Passive
affirmative
interrogative
negative
A letter marked Post Restante is to be left at the post-office until it is called for.
Where are postal orders to be cashed?
Such envelopes arent to be bought anywhere.
4. Something thought as unavoidable
-||-||-
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
negative
I didnt know when I was to get a letter from her.
I still hoped to get a letter from her, but it wasnt to be.
Remember the following set phrases:
1. Where am I to go? ?
2. Its to be hoped. .
3. What am I to do? ?
4. What is to become of me? ?
5. When am I to be there? ?
6. Who is to begin? ?
7. Whos to blame? ?
8. Whats to be done? ?
9. Hes nowhere to be found. .
10. He is to be pitied. .
11. You are to be congratulated. .
SHOULD/OUGHT TO
Meaning
Forms of the MV
Forms of the infinitive
Kinds of sentences
Some other ways of expressing the same meaning
Sentence patterns
1. Obligation weakened to the sense of advice, desirability
should
shouldnt
Should I?
ought to
oughtnt to
Ought I to?
Indefinite Infinitive
Continuous Infinitive
The Perfect Infinitive indicates that a desirable action was not carried out (an undesirable action was not carried out).
affirmative
interrogative
negative
I advise you to
I advise you not to
I recommend you to do
I urge you to do
It is for you to do
I would advise you to do
You ought to/should help your friend. He is in trouble.
You should/ought to be getting ready for your report.
You ought to/should have changed for the Underground. Gorky Street is far away from here.
He oughtnt to/shouldnt have left London without visiting Hyde Park.
2. Instructions, corrections
should
shouldnt
Should I?
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
interrogative
negative
This preposition should be pronounced with a neutral sound in an unstressed position.
You should take this medicine three times a day before your meals.
3. Disapproval, reproach for failing to do what was ones duty or moral obligation
should
shouldnt
ought to
oughtnt to
The Continuous Infinitive refers the action to the present.
The Perfect Infinitive indicates that the action was not carried out.
affirmative
negative
You ought to/should be speaking more clearly.
You oughtnt to/should have allowed him to go out so early after his illness.
4. Supposition implying probability
should
shouldnt
ought to
oughtnt to
The Indefinite Infinitive refers the action to the present or future.
The Perfect Infinitive refers the action to the past.
affirmative
negative
Very likely he Its likely he Most likely he Very probably he I think it is probable thatI expect he Probably not
This dish ought to/should be very delicious as it has been prepared by Mother.
This dish is very delicious. It ought to/should have been prepared by Mother.
5. Emotional colouring
Should I?
Indefinite Infinitive
interrogative
Why should I?
Why should you help him?
How should you know?
I will tell him about your coming, so he can meet you.
Ive often spoken at public meetings but this time I wont
You may come if you will, but you wont find the meeting amusing.
I said I would take part in the conference.
2. a) Persistence or refusal to perform an action.
b) Refusal to perform an action with lifeless things
will (would)
wont (wouldnt)
wont
wouldnt
will (would)
affirmative
negative
He insists.
She keeps on
She refuses
They continue
The teacher scolds her for whispering at the lesson, but she will whisper.
I asked him to tell me the truth, but he wouldnt.
I couldnt explain anything because the words wouldnt come.
He tried hard to stop the car, but it would move.
3. Requests (polite requests, polite invitations and suggestions)
will
would
interrogative
Could you
May I ask you to give?
Will you pass me the salt?
Would you come to tea this afternoon?
Will you have another cup of tea?
4. Habitual or recurrent actions
will (the present tense) (not common)
would (the past tense) (literary style)
affirmative
used to
That romantic girl will sit staring at the night sky.
He would fish for hours without catching anything.
Notes
I. Remember the following set phrases:
1. would rather, would sooner. e.g.: I would rather do it myself. He would sooner die than do it.
2. Would you mindmy staying here? I wouldnt mindyour joining us.
II. Will may express supposition with reference to the present or future in combination with the indefinite infinitive, or to the past in combination with the perfect infinitive. This meaning is found with the 2nd and 3rd persons.
e.g.: This will be the school, I believe. You will have heard the news, Im sure.
III. Notice the use of will in the following sentences:
e.g.: Boys will be boys. Accidents will happen. You will find no greater wisdom than kindness.
SHALL
Meaning
Forms of the MV
Forms of the infinitive
Kinds of sentences
Some other ways of expressing the same meaning
Sentence patterns
1. Asking for instruction
Shall I?
Shall he (she, they)?
Indefinite Infinitive
interrogative
Must I do it?
Do you want me to do it?
Am I to do it?
Shall I read the article again?
Shall he (she, they) start speaking on the topic?
2. Compulsion or strict order
You
he
she
it
they
shall
shant
affirmative
negative
I shall make him do it.
I shall get you to do it.
You shall stop reading fiction books at your lectures.
He shant prevent us from working at the problem.
3. Threat or warning
You
he
she
it
they
shall
shant
affirmative
negative
Tell him he shall be punished for his behaviour.
You shall fail the exam if you dont work hard.
4. Promise
You
he
she
it
they
shall
shant
affirmative
negative
You are sure to get
I promise that they wont punish you.
Dont worry, you shall have a minutes rest before the meeting begins.
DARE
Meaning
Forms of the MV
Forms of the infinitive
Kinds of sentences
Some other ways of expressing the same meaning
Sentence patterns
1. Impertinence, to have the courage to do smth
dare do smth
dared do smth
Indefinite Infinitive
affirmative
interrogative
You dare address me in that tone!
Did he dare to strike me when I was down?
2. Not to have courage to do smth
dared not do smth
negative
He didnt dare to meet his uncle
Notes
1. I dare say has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning I suppose.
2. It is used both:
a) as an normal verb => taking the auxiliary do in the interrogative and negative forms, -s in the 3rd person singular and the to+ Infinitive
b) as an anomalous verb => without the auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without s in the 3rd person singular and with the bare Infinitive (without to)
GRAMMAR EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Fill the following spaces, using can for present, could for past and will be able for future. There is no need to use other able form in this section. Put TO where necessary before the infinitives.
1. you stand on your head? ~ I when I was at school but I now.
2. When I've passed my driving test I hire a car from our local garage.
3. At the end of the month the Post Office will send him an enormous telephone bill which he pay. (negative)
4. I remember the address, (negative) ~ you even remember the street? (negative)
5. When the fog lifts we see where we are.
6. You've put too much in your rucksack; you never carry all that.
7. When I was a child I understand adults, and now that I am an adult I understand children. (negative, negative)
8. When you have taken your degree you put letters after your name.
9. Don't try to look at all the pictures in the gallery. Otherwise when you get home you remember any of them. (negative)
10. When I first went to Spain I read Spanish but I speak it.
11. you type?~ Yes, I type but I do shorthand.
12. I'm locked in. I get out! (negative) ~ you squeeze between the bars? (negative) ~ No! I ; I'm too fat. (negative)
Exercise 2.Fill in the blanks with the correct tense and form of be able to with the verb
in brackets.
1. Yesterday I (not walk) __wasnt able to walk__ to school because I was sick.
2. If you work hard now, you (play) ____________________________ all next weekend.
3. Im afraid I (not go) __________________________ with you to the doctor this evening.
4. They (understand) __________________________their neighbours now they speak Arabic.
5. Bob (buy) ______________________ that boat last week because he borrowed some money.
6. We (drive) _________________________ to the sea tomorrow in our new car.
7. My boss (not pay) ______________________me now because he hasnt got any money.
8. Im sorry, I (not find) _____________________ the book you wanted. It wasnt in the shops.
9. I think I (speak) ___________________English quite well in a few months.
10. George has traveled a lot. He (speak) _________________________four languages.
Exercise 3. (Polite request) You are staying in a hotel. What do you say in these situations.
Use Can / Could you ? or Can / Could I?
1. You want the receptionist to turn the air-conditioning off in your room because youre cold.
Could you (or Can you) turn the air-conditioning off, please?
2. There is only one towel in your room. You want another one.
