The Elements of Good Instructions
People often complain that most directions are impossible to follow. In fact, this type of complaint is often leveled against may types of Technical Writing, and often justifiably so. The reason for the complaint, though, is that too many writers ignore some of the most fundamental rules to writing effective instructions:
Basic Assumptions for Writing Instructions
readers will not read all your instructions;
some people will try to work without reading the instructions at all (reading the instructions is often a last resort)
you need to keep instructions short and simple;
don't over assume about your reader's ability (or patience);
think carefully about the type of reader you will have for the instructions.
Write for the User
make sure your instructions are helpful and written for your users;
be specific;
provide encouragement (for example, "If you hear a chime, you've done part A correctly and are now ready for part B. Good work!");
define terms that readers may not know;
pace your instructions carefully (don't say, "do step 1, then step 2, then step 10;" if you jump over too much information, your readers will get lost);
anticipate problems and places where your readers might get lost; warn your readers if they are likely to find something confusing (for example, "at this point, be sure not to select option 3--instead choose option 2; option 3 is for later");
summarize information (for example, "you've now covered part one, ignition, and the machine should now be running");
test your instructions to make sure they work; many sets of instructions are hard to follow because no one ever bothered to test them and so simple problems with the directions were missed;
ask someone else to test your instructions, too, to make sure you haven't assumed too much information; it has to be clear to your user, not just to you.
Quantity of Instructions
shorter is better and less confusing;
10 steps or less is the ideal;
if you have 15 or more steps, try to divide the task in half;
if you have too many steps and someone makes a mistake late in the process, they may have to go all the way back to the beginning and completely restart.
"Chunking" Information
break large sets of instructions into smaller units; this is called "chunking";
this allows people to have places to stop and track their progress;
smaller units organized around a common theme are easier to understand;
smaller units of instructions also won't tire your readers out as quickly;
small units look, and actually are, easier to do Layout;
don't forget about the rules of document design;
use headings to organize your instructions;
use bullets for lists;
use numbers for sequential lists of information;
include diagrams and other visuals aids to clarify meaning.
Progress Checking/Landmarks
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readers are more likely to be able to successfully follow directions if they can check their progress as they go;
include landmarks that tell readers they are on the right track (for example, "after pressing F2, you will see a blue screen");
make sure your landmarks are easy to spot;
permanent landmarks are better than temporary ones (don't say, "you will see a blue screen" if sometimes the screen will be red);
you can also use landmarks to warn people (for example, "do not press delete or you will erase your disk") or to let them know if they've gone off track (for example, "if you see a red gas station, you've driven too far");
you also want to give readers a chance to test how well they are following your directions (for example, "if you've done these first 5 steps correctly, you should hear a bell chime").
UNIT 8
MULTIMEDIA
Vocabulary Bank Unit 8
Task 1. Read, write the translation and learn the basic vocabulary terms:
Animation
2. audio and video compression
3. audio file format
4. car dashboard
5. compilation (n)
6. compress (v)
7. control features
8. data transfer rate
9. digital audio
10. discrete code
11. DVD (digital versatile disk)
12. encoder (n)
13. equalizer (n)
14. frequency display
15. graphic equalizer
16. interchangeable faceplates
17. jukebox
18. key difference
19. Kilohertz
20. Megabytes
21. MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
22. mixing desk
23. MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer 3)
24. MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group)
25. multimedia
26. music library
27. music synthesisers
28. musical genres
29. optical storage media
30. play lists
31. randomize (v)
32. randomize the selection
33. recorder
34. reproduce
35. rip/ to extract
36. route the signals
37. ripper (n)
38. sample (v, n)
39. skin (n)
40. songs lyrics
41. sound sample
42. speakers
43. spectrum analyzer
44. standalone players
45. strip (v)
46. strip out sounds
47. tag
48. track info button
Text A. MULTIMEDIA
Multimedia is the term used to refer to a combination of text, graphics, animation, sound and video.
MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer 3) is a standard way of storing compressed, digital audio files (usually music). The name MP3 comes from MPEG (pronounced EM-peg), which stands for the Motion Picture Experts Group, an organisation that develops standards for audio and video compression. MP3 is actually MPEG Audio Layer 3.
MP3 competes with another audio file format called WAV. The key difference is that MP3 files are much smaller than WAV files. An MP3 file can store a minute of sound per megabyte, while a WAV file needs 11 or 12 megabytes to hold the same amount. How does MP3 achieve this compression? CDs and audio files don't reproduce every sound of a performance. Instead, they sample the performance and store a discrete code for each sampled note. A CD or WAV file may sample a song 44,000 times a second, creating a huge mass of information.
By stripping out sounds most people can't hear, MP3 significantly reduces the information stored. For instance, most people can't hear notes above a frequency of 16kHz, so it eliminates them from the mix. Similarly, it eliminates quiet sounds masked by noise at the same frequency. The result is a file that sounds very similar to a CD, but which is much smaller. An MP3 file can contain spoken word performances, such as radio shows or audio books, as well as music. It can provide information about itself in a coded block called a tag. The tag may include the performer's name, a graphic such as an album cover, the song's lyrics, the musical genre, and a URL for more details.
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Digital audio is created by sampling sound 44,000 times a second and storing a code number to represent each sound sample. The files are compressed by removing any sounds that are inaudible to the human ear, making them much smaller than files created using other digital audio storage standards, such as WAV. The size of an audio file is commonly measured in megabytes (MB) (millions of bytes). The frequency of a sound is measured in kilohertz (kHz) (thousands of cycles per second). MP3 files have extra code added, called tags, that give the user information about the file e.g. the performer's name, a URL (uniform resource locator i.e. a web address) or a graphic such as an album cover.
Because of their small size, MP3 files are more suitable for transferring across the Internet (the connection of computer networks across the world). Some Internet websites (sets of related pages stored on a Web server on the World Wide Web) are devoted to providing MP3 files for downloading (copying from a server computer to a client computer). The user can create their own music compilations (combinations of files) by listening to each file using a computer program, such as Windows Media Player, and choosing what files to download, They can then use a computer program called an MP3 player to listen to the files and control the sound. MP3 players let the user group songs into play lists and randomize the selections. They also have sound control features such as spectrum analyzers, graphic equalizers, and frequency displays.
A track info button allows the user to see the information stored in the MP3 file tag. Other buttons may take you to a music library where you can organize your MP3 files by performer or genre. The appearance of MP3 players can be changed using programs called skins (or themes). These programs are designed to change the appearance of the most popular players. MP3 players often include a program, called a ripper, that lets the user rip (extract) a song from a CD (compact disk) and convert it to a standard WAV file. Another program called an encoder is used to convert WAV files into MP3 files or vice versa.
Recorder programs are also available that enable the user to create audio CDs using a writable CD-ROM drive. Special MP3 player devices are also available that enable the user to listen to MP3 files without a computer.
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard way of connecting musical instruments, music synthesizers, and computers. A piece of electronics called a MIDI interface board is installed on each device to enable the device to communicate using MIDI standards. As music is being played, it can be displayed on a monitor screen as a musical score, then edited using a computer program that uses all the features of a mixing desk (an electronic device for mixing sounds together), stored and printed. MIDI systems do not store the actual sound. Instead the sound is encoded (stored as MIDI messages) in the form of 8-bit bytes (units of capacity equal to eight binary digits i.e. 1s and 0s) of digital information. A bit is a binary digit i.e. a 1 or a 0, and a byte is a group of 8 bits. The MIDI messages commonly consist of instructions that tell the receiving instrument what note to play, how long and how loud it should be played, including a number that indicates which instrument to play. Each instrument is represented by a different number e.g. 67 is a saxophone.
A DVD-ROM, commonly referred to as a DVD (digital versatile disk - previously known as digital video disk), is a development of CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory). It is an optical storage medium (a storage medium that uses laser light to store data) that provides large amounts of storage space for multimedia files. A DVD-ROM drive (a storage device for reading DVD disks) uses blue laser light (rather than the red laser light used by CD-ROM drives) to read information from the disk. Both sides of the disk can be used for storing files and each side can have two separate storage layers. The data transfer rate of a DVD (the speed at which data can be read from a DVD) is also faster than that of a CD-ROM. The capacity of a DVD is commonly measured in gigabytes (GB) (thousands of millions of bytes).
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MPEG is a method of compressing and decompressing video signals. MPEG stands for Motion Picture Experts Group, an organisation that develops standards for audio and video compression.
Post-reading activity
Task 2. Answer the following questions.
1. What does the term multimedia mean? 2. What does MP3 stand for? 3. What is the difference between MP3 and WAV files? 4. What kind of sound does MP3 strip out? 5. What kind of information is included in the tag? 6. Why are MP3 files more suitable for transferring across the Internet? 7. What is downloading? 8. How can the user see the information stored in the MP3 file tag? 9. How can the appearance of MP3 player be changed? 10. Is it possible to listen to MP3 files without a computer? 11. What is MIDI? 12. What is a DVD-ROM?
Task 3. Match the words from the box with their definitions.
| MIDI, MPEG, ripper, skin, download, MP3, URL, multimedia, tag, DVD-(ROM) |
1. a uniform (or universal) resource locator
2. acronym for musical instrument digital interface. A standard for connecting musical instruments to computer systems.
3. a Motion Picture Experts Group standard for audio compression
4. Motion Picture Experts Group, a committee that develops standards for audio and video file formats and compression
5. the combination of text, graphics animation, sound and video
6. a program that extracts songs from a CD and turns them into WAV files
7. a computer program that is used to change the interface of another program, e.g. to change the screen display on an MP3 player program
8. a label used in a mark-up language. It is attached to a piece of text to mark the start or the end of a particular function.
9. a process of copying a file from a server to a client computer in a network
10. a digital versatile disk read only memory. An optical disk storage device that can hold a large amount of video data.
Task 4. Find the English equivalents ofthe following word combinations.
1. ' (); 2. ; 3. ; 4. ; 5. ; 6. ; 7. ; 8. ; 9. ; 10.
Task 5. Mark the following as True or False.
1. MP3 reduces the information stored by removing loud sounds. 2. It is possible to alter the look of your MP3 player by downloading a skin program. 3. You can rip audio information from a CD by using a recorder program. 4. One can convert a WAV file to MP3 format by using an encoder. 5. You can view the lyrics, notes and author data by clicking on Track Info. 6. MIDI systems store the actual sound.
Task 6. Match each cause and effect, then link them with an-ing clause.
Model: 1) Using MIDI, computers can communicate with synthesizers.
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2) A WAV file may sample a song 44.000 times a second, creating a huge mass of information.
| Cause | Effect |
| 1. Computers with MIDI interface boards can be connected to MIDI instruments. 2. Each side of a DVD can have two layers. 3. MP3 removes sounds we can't hear. 4. You can download single tracks. 5. Each MP3 file has a tag. 6. MP3 players contain several devices. 7. You can download a skin program. 8. You can legally download some music. | a) This permits extra information to be stored on the performer and other track details. b) You can create your own compilation. c) This allows you to sample a new group before buying their CD. d) This gives an enormous storage capacity. e) This allows the music being played to be stored by the computer and displayed on the monitor. f) This enables you to change the appearance of your player. g) These allow you to control the way the music sounds. h) This produces much smaller files. |
Task 7. Complete each gap in this text with a suitable word from this list.
a) brains
b) second
c) MP3
d) hear
e) digital
f) sounds
g) sampling
h) format
i) CDs
j) smaller
k) per
l) inaudible
m) file
n) WAV
o) minute
p) frequency
q) compressing
r) sound
s) removed
t) megabytes
MP3 is a set of standards for... (1) and storing... (2) audio and video. Whereas CDs and... (3) files require about 11 MB for one minute of sound,... (4) files give you the same... (5) quality in a... (6) which requires only about 1 MB for each... (7) so a single track takes only three to five... (8). Computers store sound as digital information. They do this by... (9) taking a sample of the sound thousands of times... (10) second.... (11) store information in a format called CD-DA. This samples 44.000 times per... (12) and is broadly similar to WAV. MP3 files depend on the fact that our... (13) do not detect all... (14). An MP3 encoder removes from a WAV... (15) all but the parts we dont... (16).Sounds above 16 kHz are... (17) for the most people so these can be... (18). Quieter sounds masked by loud sounds of a similar... (19) are also removed. The result is an MP3 file which is much... (20) than the WAV original.
Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian.
1. One of the problems in dealing with computer-controlled sound and graphics is that the related files require extremely large amounts of storage. 2. Storing graphics, sound and video files on a high-capacity device such as compact disc (CD) is the solution to the problem. 3. These devices store information by etching the encoded data into the same kind of plastic disk used to store and play back popular music. 4. With the emergence of more realistic computer graphics, many people have found the computers monitor to be a limited output device for displaying them. 5. Early computers were seen primarily for storing and displaying information in the form of numbers and text. 6. After printing or displaying the graph you can see the advantages of the new device. 7. Using computer greatly reduces the amount of time it takes to create presentations that use many different forms of information. 8. They succeeded in making a number of multimedia applications. 9. Today, special devices have means of storing video images in digital form on a computers magnetic media as computer graphics. 10. By rapidly delivering these digital graphics images to the computer screen one after the other we can simulate the kind of video images we see on our television set. 11. Today software companies are busy creating programmes to manage multimedia resources. 12. We insisted on their developing the programs which vary considerably in design, but are all capable of incorporating text, graphics, sound and video into one program. 13. The difficulty was providing special software for dealing with external devices such as CD-ROM drives and videodisc drives and for incorporation of digital video.
Task 9. Unscramble the letters to complete the definitions from an online dictionary.
1 dheasenpho _________: device which covers each ear and allows you to listen to audio without other people hearing;
2 pertyhtex ________: text with links to other text or other parts of a document or web page;
3 Tacvitiyniter __________: allowing two-way communication between a program and the user;
4 pormicnohe ____________: equipment that allows you to record your voice;
5 batscewf__________: a concert or other event broadcast over the Internet.
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Task 10. Translate into English
1. ', , MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface). 2. MIDI : - - - . 3. MIDI- . 4. , . 5. . MIDI- , , . 6. IDI- ( MID) , . 7. IDI- IDI-, . 8. . 9. , , 55. 10. 55, . 11. . 12. , , .
Task 11. Read Text B and find answers to the following questions.
1. Is it possible to bring information in the form of graphics, sound and video under computer control? 2. Is there any difference between the videodisk player and compact disk player? 3. Why are multimedia authoring systems widely used to manage the presentation of information? 4. Explain the term virtual reality?
