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2) Marxist philosophy or Marxist theory are works in philosophy that are strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory, or works written by Marxists. Marxist philosophy may be broadly divided into Western Marxism, which drew out of various sources, and the official philosophy in the Soviet Union, which enforced a rigid reading of Marx called dialectical materialism, in particular during the 1930s. Marxist philosophy is not a strictly defined sub-field of philosophy, because the diverse influence of Marxist theory has extended into fields as varied as aesthetics, ethics, ontology, epistemology, theoretical psychology and philosophy of science, as well as its obvious influence on political philosophy and the philosophy of history. The key characteristics of Marxism in philosophy are its materialism and its commitment to political practice as the end goal of all thought.

Marxist theorist Louis Althusser, for example, defined philosophy as "class struggle in theory", thus radically separating himself from those who claimed philosophers could adopt a "God's eye view" as a purely neutral judge. Marx develops a comprehensive, theoretical understanding of political reality early in his intellectual and activist career by means of a critical adoption and radicalization of the categories of 18th and 19th century German Idealist thought. Of particular importance is Hegel's appropriation of Aristotle's organicist and essentialist categories in the light of Kant's transcendental turn.[2]:30

Marx builds on four contributions Hegel makes to our philosophical understanding. They are: (1) the replacement of mechanism and atomism with Aristotelean categories of organicism and essentialism, (2) the idea that world history progresses through stages, (3) the difference between natural and historical (dialectical) change, and (4) the idea that dialectical change proceeds through contradictions in the thing itself

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Comte's positivism

According to Auguste Comte, society undergoes three different phases in its quest for the truth according to the aptly named Law of three stages. These three phases are the theological, the metaphysical and the positive phases. [Giddens, "Positivism and Sociology", 1]

The theological phase of man is based on whole-hearted belief in all things with reference to God. God, he says, had reigned supreme over human existence pre-Enlightenment. Humanity's place in society was governed by his association with the divine presences and with the church. The theological phase deals with humankind accepting the doctrines of the church (or place of worship) and not questioning the world. It dealt with the restrictions put in place by the religious organization at the time and the total acceptance of any fact placed forth for society to believe. [Mill, "Auguste Comte and Positivism" 3] Comte describes the metaphysical phase of humanity as the time since the Enlightenment, a time steeped in logical rationalism, to the time right after the French Revolution. This second phase states that the universal rights of humanity are most important. The central idea is that humanity is born with certain rights, that should not and cannot be taken away, which must be respected. With this in mind democracies and dictators rose and fell in attempt to maintain the innate rights of humanity. [Mises, "Positivism: A Study In Human Understanding",5]

The final stage of the trilogy of Comtes universal law is the scientific, or positive stage. The central idea of this phase is the idea that individual rights are more important than the rule of any one person. Comte stated the idea that humanity is able to govern itself is what makes this stage innately different from the rest. There is no higher power governing the masses and the intrigue of any one person than the idea that one can achieve anything based on one's individual free will and authority. The third principle is most important in the positive stage. [Mill, "Auguste Comte and Positivism", 4]

These three phases are what Comte calls the universal rule in relation to society and its development. Neither the second nor the third phase can be reached without the completion and understanding of the preceding stage. All stages must be completed in progress. [Giddens, "Positivism and Sociology", 9] The irony of this series of phases is that though Comte attempted to prove that human development has to go through these three stages it seems that the positivist stage is far from becoming a realization. This is due to two truths. The positivist phase requires having complete understanding of the universe and world around us and requires that society should never know if it is in this positivist phase. Giddens argues that since humanity is constantly using science to discover and research new things, humanity never progresses beyond the second metaphysical phase. Thus, some believe Comtes positivism to be circular. [Giddens, "Positivism and Sociology", 9]

Comte believed that the appreciation of the past and the ability to build on it towards the future was key in transitioning from the theological and metaphysical phases. The idea of progress was central to Comte's new science, sociology. Sociology would "lead to the historical consideration of every science" because "the history of one science, including pure political history, would make no sense unless it were attached to the study of the general progress of all of humanity". [Mary Pickering, "Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biography", Volume I, 622] As Comte would say, "from science comes prediction; from prediction comes action". [Mary Pickering, "Auguste Comte: An IntellectualBiography", Volume I, 566] It is a philosophy of human intellectual development that culminated in science.

In 1849, Comte proposed a calendar reform called the positivist calendar.

 

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2) Empiricism the direction of philosophical thought, focused on experimental science that considers the source of knowledge experience, primarily organized by scientific experience or experiment.

The founder of empiricism was the English philosopher and politician Francis bacon (1561 1626), who, like other thinkers of the new time, was convinced that philosophy can become a science and should it be.

In the essay "the Great Revolt of the Sciences," bacon called for the restoration of the Sciences, and notes that to recover should certain ancient teachings and the spirit of bold search, inherent to their creators.

Science, knowledge he considers as the Supreme value, having the practical importance. Their attitude to science, he expressed in the aphorism "Knowledge is power", or (if a more accurate translation) "Knowledge is power". Bacon likes to say: we have so much, how many we know.

Based on the cognitive human capabilities, which include memory, intelligence and imagination, bacon has developed a classification of Sciences. Memory-based history as a description of facts, imagination poetry, literature and art in General. The reason lies in the basis of theoretical science or philosophy in the broad sense of the word. In addition to philosophy in the broad sense of the word bacon distinguishes also "the first philosophy", or actually the philosophy of science, which includes "natural theology" (an indirect knowledge of God through the facts of nature); "anthropology" (a philosophical doctrine about the person) and "philosophy of nature".

The main difficulty in the study of nature, in the thought of Francis bacon, is now not in the subject, not in the external, not dependent on us conditions, and in the human mind, in its use and application.

For bacon the correct method is the best guide on the way to future discoveries and inventions, the shortest way to the truth. The method serves as the greatest transformative power, because it focuses both theoretical and practical human activity. Indicating the shortest path to new discoveries, it increases the power of man over nature.

 

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2) The course in 20th Century Philosophy seeks to provide a perspective of the rise, fall, and transformation of major movements in philosophy from the turn of the century to the final decade of the 20th century. Thus, as noted below, the course is organized around five major philosophical movements, rather than around problems or areas of philosophy, great books or single philosophical thinkers. The focus of the course, however, involves the evaluation of the arguments, particularly in metaphysics and epistemology within each of these movements. The requirement for grades in the course is voted upon by the class, but this procedure is dependent upon the guidelines provided by the instructor. In the past, this has meant that there is a midterm exam usually scheduled at the end of part I, and a cumulative final at the end of the term. In the class discussion, students are free to advance other options for grading and to vote on these options, subject, however, to the limits set by the instructors guidelines.

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1) Other researchers have identified different functions of philosophy.Quite a lot of them.The majority opinion recognized the following from the main functions of philosophy.

the philosophy lies in the ability of science to describe a philosophical view of the world and to combine the knowledge of various Sciences, arts and practices.It is characterized by abstract and theoretical approach to the explanation of the world.In this regard, the philosophies themselves are dual in nature is expressed in gravity or science or pseudoscience.

Methodological - is to determine the best ways to achieve certain goals, such as building scientific knowledge, social practices and aesthetic creation.Relates to such methods and principles of action, which, as a rule, fundamental, and not restrictive.These methods include the historical method.Philosophy options are mainly aimed at clarifying the content of the basic principles of science and practicefree is the doctrine of common methods and a set o

F methods of cognition which are common to the Sciences dealing with knowledge of the world.

Humanistic - appears quite clearly and implemented very carefully to people.The philosophy is to be attentive to people.Thus, it is not limited to purely scientific approach and widely used ethical and aesthetic approaches.

Practical - a concern for the welfare of the people, what moral is.

predictive - formulates the hypothesis of common trends of development of matter, the world of human consciousness.The probability of the prediction increases with the extent to which the philosophy is based on scientific knowledge.

Critical to other disciplines and to the philosophy.Since ancient times the main principle of this science is the postulate of susceptibility to all doubt.By we do not mean abstract nihilism and constructive criticism on the basis of dialectical negation.

Axiological - relevance to the evaluation of the object with the positions of various values: moral, social, ideological, aesthetic, etc.

the social function of philosophy is quite vague content and scope of aspects of society.Philosophy performs a double task - to explain social life and contributes to his spiritual and material perfection.In this regard, philosophy has assumed the prerogative to develop General concepts of integration and consolidation of society

 

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