Orenburg.
The history of Orenburg is very interesting. It got its name before it's factual foundation which took place three times. For the first time Orenburg was founded in August 1735 by the state expedition headed by the statesman Ivan Kirillovich Kirilov. It happened on the site of the present Orsk. For the second time Orenburg was founded in August 1741 by the state expedition headed by prince V.A. Urusov. It happened on the site of present village Krasnaya Gora (not far from Saractash). It was done according to the advice of the prominent Russian scientist Vasily Nikischev. Finally Orenburg was founded on its present site by the prominent Russian statesman Ivan Ivanovich Neplyev.
Orenburg was planned not only as a fortress but also as an important center of commerce between Russian and Asia. The original fortress had 10 bastions and 4 gates. In the 18th century the development of the town was rather slow because of the severe climate and the lack of population. During the peasants uprising of the 1774 Orenburg was besieged by the Pugachev's army. The Orenburg province was the site of exile for many prominent people - poets Alexey Plecheyev, Taras Shevchenko; a composer Alexander Alyabyev and many others.. But step by step the population of Orenburg and its province grew. In general the population of the Orenburg province was multinational. At the beginning of the 19th century more and more buildings were constructed in Orenburg. They were private houses for nobleman, merchants, doctors, engineers, teachers, clerks' and common people.
More and more military and public institutions appeared in the town. In 1833 Orenburg was visited by A.S. Pushkin who collected materials for his literary works - The Captain's Daughter and History of Pugachov. Vladimir Ivanovich Dal lived and worked in Orenburg for several years. Orenburg is the birthplace of the revolution poet M.Z. Mihailov.
S.T. Aksakov had a country-seat in the Orenburg province. He devoted many beautiful stories to the nature of the province. In the 1850ies the development of the greenery in the Zauralnaya Roscha began under the supervision of the engineer and general Bikbulatov. At the end of the 19th century Lukian Vasilyevich Popov, an artist belonging to the Peredvizhniks' movement lived and worked in Orenburg. One can see his works not only in the local museum of Fine Arts but also in the Tretyakov Gallery.,
Orenburg was traditionally famous for the Orenburg shawls. They are real works of art. There are some examples of fine architecture in Orenburg. The famous Karavan Sarai was built according to the project of architect Brullov. ^ere are many interesting buildings in the present Sovetskaya Street (the former Gubemskaya. then Nicolaevskaya street).;
During the revolutionary years Orenburg was the place of severe battles between the Red and White Army. During the Great Patriotic War many factories were evacuated to Orenburg from the West of our country. Our People did their best for the Soviet Union for their courage and combat action (service in battle) - among them were poet Musa Galil and general Alexander Rodimtsevi
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Now Orenburg is not only an administrative and industrial center of the huge region but also its major cultural center. The population of Orenburg is more than half a million people. The population of region is about 2 mln people. There are several institutions of higher learning in Orenburg, among them there are State Medical Institute, the State Pedagogical Institute, the State Agricultural Institute, the Polytechnics and some institutes where students study by correspondence and in the evening.
There are some training colleges - medical, pedagogical, technical, musical ones, several vocational schools and a lot of secondary schools.
The first world cosmonaut Y.A. Gagarin studied at the flying school. are three stationary theatres in Orenburg: Drama theatre, the Musical Comedy Theatre, the puppet Theatre and the State Folk Choir. There's Large Exhibition Hall in Volodarskaya street and the Musical Hall in Vystavochnaya street. There are some museums, the major of them are the Museum of Natural History, Sciences and Fine Arts Museum. There are many places of culture, cinemas, clubs, stadiums, parks.
I like my native town (Orenburg) and I want it become more beautiful and clean
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Building materials
In the choice of materials for any work of construction, the civil engineer must be able to select and adapt such building materials that will give the most effective result by the most economical means, Materials that are used for structural purposes should meet several requirements. These requirements include availability, cost and physical properties of materials. In most cases it is important that they should be hard, durable, fire-resistant and easily fastened together. All building materials are divided into three main groups:
1. Main building materials. They are used for bearing structures.
2. Cementing or binding materials. They are used for joining different planes.
3. Secondary and auxiliary materials. We used them for the interior finish of the buildings.
Buildings materials may also be classified into natural materials (sand, stone, lime, timber) and artificial materials (cement, concrete).
The most commonly used building materials are wood, stone, brick, steel and concrete. They all vary, sometimes over considerable ranges in the properties desired by the engineer.
Wood is the most ancient structural material. If is light, cheap, easy to work with and its mechanical properties are good. But it has serious disadvantages: it burns and decays.
Stone is also one of the oldest building materials used by man. Its main features are mechanical strength, compactness, porosity, sound and heat insulation, fire-resistance. Stone is widely used for foundations, walls, for the supports of piers and for finishing and decorating all sorts of structures.
Bricks appeared many thousand years ago. They are hard and easily fastened together with the help of mortar. So a brick building is strong, durable and weather resistant.
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The most important building materials many now be considered to structural steel and concrete. Mass concrete was employed by the Egyptians and the Romans. The use of steel reinforcement began in the 19-th century. We live and work in concrete structures, drink water which is brought to our houses through concrete pipes. Concrete may be considered an artificial conglomerate of crushed stone, cement, sand with water. This mass is hard and durable. Concrete is used largely for the foundations and walls of buildings, for structures under water.
Steel has come into general use with the development of industry. There are different kinds of steel. Alloyed steel (or special steel) is corrosion-resistant steel. This kind of steel is widely used in construction. Stainless steel is also-corrosion- resistant-steel. It is used for furnace parts, valves, ball - bearing, etc.
Glass and plastics are also widely used nowadays in the construction of different types of buildings. There are different types of glass: flat glass, ribbed glass, corrugated glass, etc. Plastic is a name for various organic derivatives of resin, cellulose and protein. Plastics combine all the fine characteristics. It is no wonder then the architects and engineer have turned to them to add beauty to modern houses.
Lime, gypsum and cement are the three materials most widely used in building construction for the purpose of binding together masonry units and as constituents of wall plaster.
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Orenburg state university
Nowadays Orenburg state university is one of the biggest classical universities in Russia.
The university campus is about 291 000(to hand it nine fan thousands) square meters. It consist of about 40(forty) buildings including 16 teaching blocks, 5 hostels, the place of culture russia, the place of sport penguin, new fundamental electronic library and many others.
There are 16 faculties, 4 institutes, 6 regional branches, 5 colleges, 2 lyceums at the OSU.
The university has full-time, part-time and correspondence department. The course of study last is 5-6 years. During the academic year student attend lectures and practical classes and do laboratory works. Most of laboratories are equipped with modern devises and computes. The development of information technologies at the university began nearly 30 years ago with is first computes. Nowadays the number of university computers is up to 1500 (one thousand five hundred). Over 80 percent of computes are used for educational purpose.
The powerful system of network technologies at the OSU includes: center of information technologies, internet center, modern information technologies in education.
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Types of buildings
The need for buildings of all kinds is great and in many cases urgent. Types of buildings depend upon social formations and the majority of building codes divide buildings into classes based upon the manner of their construction, role in the community or occupancy. According to the role in the community buildings are classified as domestic, industrial, educational, recreational, etc.
The type and the function of a building govern its design, building materials and techniques. But the common and necessary conditions are: (1) its suitability to use by human beings in general and its adaptability to particular human activities, (2) the stability and permanence of its construction.
Housing is prominent among the factors affecting the level of living. The ever growing housing demands have brought to life new methods of construction with great emphasis upon standardization, new level of technological advance utilizing such techniques as offsite prefabrication, precutting, use of reinforced concrete panels and large-scale planning.
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Present-day designs for residential construction envisage all modern amenities for a dwelling, they advocate larger, better built and better equipped flats and houses. There is a marked improvement in the heating and ventilating systems as well as in hot-water supply, kitchen and sanitary fittings.
Industrial buildings comprise another significant type of construction. This type of construction involves factories, laboratories, food processing plants, mines, office buildings, laboratories, food processing plants, mines, office buildings, stores, garages, hangars and other storage facilities, exhibition halls, etc.
Each of these functions demands its own structural solution and technique. But in general they may be divided into two classes according to whether the plan must give greater attention to the size and movement of machinery or of persons. The building techniques depend on the type of buildings.
Modern industrial buildings have demonstrated the advantages of reinforced concrete arches, metal frames, glass walls and prefabricated standardized mass produced parts. Steel was gradually substituted for iron and permitted wider rooms and larger windows. Windows can be enlarged to the extent that they constitute a large fraction of the wall area.
More serious attention is given to the architectural aspects of industrial building. Integration of all various parts into a pleasing whole is an essential aim, and as a result a number of architecturally good industrial buildings are being erected.
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The Construction of a Building
Man has always been a builder. A modern man spends much time within the walls of some building. Houses are built for dwelling, large buildings are constructed for industrial purposes; theatres, museums, public and scientific institutions are built for cultural activities of the people.
Houses are more than just bricks and mortar. Before any bricks are laid a lot of thinking and planning has to be done. The plot of land has to be chosen, and it is then decided what kind of house is to be built. Quite a lot of people all work together to make the house.
A building is a construction which is raised on foundation and is generally made of wood stone, concrete blocks, bricks and mortar or cement. Many new types of individual houses are made from slabs, rolled gypsum concrete panels or wood sheets. A lot of houses are built of prefabricated blocks (prefabs). The building process takes place under the supervision of formen and engineers. The structure is built up by bricklayers, carpenters, plasterers, plumbers, painters, glass-cutters, etc. ^
In the construction of a house the first step is to make a careful survey of the site and to examine the soil in order to find its bearing power. Every detail of a house must be carefully planned. The working plan itself is called a blueprint. It is from the blueprint that the workman sees where to place the wall, the windows, doors, etc. The size of the room the width of the doors and the windows, the height of the ceilings are also marked on the plan.
cording to the plan the building lines of the house staked out., Then the foundations and built. Foundations are to keep the floors and walls from contact with the soil, to protect against the action of the frost and to prevent from settlement. The part upon winch the stability of the structure depends is the framework. It carries the loads which are imposed on it. To do this work properly and safely the floors, walls, roofs and other parts of the constructions must be correctly designed and proportioned.
The walls of the house are built on the foundations. Walls are constructed to enclose areas and to support the weight of floors and roofs. Brick, stone, concrete and other natural and artificial materials are used for the construction of walls. In case of a brick house the building of a wall consist in laying the courses of bricks and bonding them together with mortar. To make doors and windows a lintel is usually inserted in the wall above the opening.
Storeys are separated by several successive layers: the firestop joists and rough flooring. The regular flooring is placed upon the rough floor, being supported by stringers and girders. The staircase leads to the upper floors and root which covers the building and protects it from exposure to the weather. It ties the walls and gives strength to the structure.
After the building of the house proper is completed there will be the need to make a number of connections. Plumbers lay water pipes to carry clean water into the house from the water main. They also lay sewers to carry waste water away. The particular part of the work is undertaken to provide the building with gas and electricity. All the wiring is embedded in the walls.
When all the wires and pipes are in place the house is ready to be decorated. The walls may be either covered with wall-paper or only plastered and then whitewashed or painted. The walls of bathrooms are usually tiled with plastic tiles from to bottom. The joiners finish all the woodwork in the house; the glaziers put glass in the window frames to keep out the wind and the rain. A house ready for occupation by the new tenants.
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My speciality.
I am a second year student of the Civil Engineering Faculty of the Orenburg State University. It is one of the largest higher educational establishments in our town. The Civil Engineering. Faculty was founded in 1970. It trains civil engineers in the following specialties: "Industrial and Public Construction", "Manufacture of the Building Structures", "Architects", "Designers", "Automobile Roads", "City- Construction and Economy".
During the years of activity the faculty has trained many highly-qualified engineers. Such specialists are in great demand nowadays.
There are the day-time, the evening-time and extra-mural departments. Those who combine studies with their work, are trained at the evening-time and extra-mural
departments.
The whole process of studying deals with mastering new construction methods and progressive technology of production of building structures and materials.
The junior students are taught mathematics, physics, a foreign language
(English/German/French), chemistry, philosophy, computer processing of information. We attend lectures, do laboratory work and tests. We have quite; a number of well-equipped laboratories at our disposal. Mastering one of the foreign languages enables us to read foreign literature and learn about the latest scientific and technical achievements abroad.
The senior students study special engineering subjects such as Strength or Materials, Theoretical Mechanics, Building Materials, Geodesy, Architecture, etc.
The fourth-year students combine their studies with their research work. We write course papers and graduation thesis on the scientific problems of our research work. Many highly - qualified teachers work at the departments of our faculty, some of them have candidate's degrees and scientific ranks, summer the students or" our faculty, besides vacation, have their practical hours in order to have a clear idea o: what our speciality means. According to the academic plan, the fifth -year students are sent to work at different plants and construction sites, where they learn to employ In practice the knowledge they gained at the University.
During practice the students master the job of a civil engineer and at the sane lime collect materials for their diploma papers.
The final and most important period in the students life is the defence or das graduation work in the presence of the State Examining Board. All the graduates ga work according to their speciality.
We shall work at building material factories, on construction sites, at demand research institutions and lab6ratories. Besides, we are provided with every necessary for a scientific career entering a post-graduate course. In a word we have wide range of job opportunities.
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Structural Elements
From the beginning of recorded time man has designed and erected structures of various size and beauty. One of the most important considerations in design of safe, strong, beautiful and economical structures is the determination of the correct shape and dimensions for all of the structural elements. Let's speak about some of them.
Arches. Through most of architectural history, the arch has been the chief means of overcoming the spanning limitations of single blocks of stone or lengths of timber. There were three types of arches in ancient architecture. One consisted of only three rough blocks of stone, the central one somewhat larger than the gap between the other two and wedged between them. A second consisted of only two lone blocks inclined toward one another as an inverted V-shape. This form was constructed in timber. The third was known as the false or corbelled arch. Later appeared small true brick arches. From the first century AD the Romans began to use concrete in place of cut stone. Arches of other profiles were made. Of these, the most important in the Middle Ages were-the pointed arches. Early cast-iron arches of the late 18-th and early 19-th centures all closely resembled braced timber arches. Later steel and reinforced concrete arches have usually been given the necessary stiffness by the adoption of an I-shaped, boxlike, or tubular cross section.
Beams (as well as girders and columns) are used to support the whole structure. There are different types of beams. A simple beam is a beam that rests upon a support an each end, there being no resistant at the supports. This is the type most commonly in use. A cantilever beam is a beam that is supported at only one end. A beam projecting from a wall is an example. An overhanging beam rests upou two or more supports, one or both ends projecting beyond the supports. A continuous beam is a beam that rests upon more than two supports. A fixed beam is a beam that is restrained against rotation at the end or ends. Beams were first made of stone and of stone and timber. Iron beams became structurally important elements only in the late of 18-th century. Reinforced concrete beams are widely used now, since the strength of the concrete, the overall geometry of the element were under the designer's control.
Domes. The dome may be regarded as the three-dimensional counterpart of the arch. In its true circular form, a vertical arch is rotated around a vertical axis and sweeps out, at every level, a continuous circular horizontal ring. Loads can be transmitted both along the meridian lines of the vertical arches and around the Horizontal rings.
I Masonry domes have been constructed for centuries, but in modern times the masonry has been largely-supplanted by steel and concrete;
Shells. The term shell is-used to denote a spanning and space -enclosing elements of domed or other vault like form, but with a thickness and order of magnitude less than was usual for these masonry and mass-concrete forms. Shells are similar to domes in that they transmit forces in three dimensions. This result in great economy of material; in fact no other system of construction utilizes materials so efficiently. Shell construction for buildings is of concrete, although some experiments have been made with shells of plywood. Shells have been made in a wide variety of forms. The most unlimited latitude in design forms is one of the main advantages of shell construction.
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