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UNIT 4.
Globalisation
1. - .
Globalisation is the growth and enactment of world culture. Since at least the middle of the nineteenth century, a rationalised world institutional and cultural order has crystallised that consists of universally applicable models that shape states, organisations, and individual identities. Conceptions of progress, sovereignty, rights, and the like, have acquired great authority. After World War II international life gained a cultural structure. States at very different economic levels adopted common precepts and established common institutions. Far from being the prime movers on the international scene, states derived much of their structure and authority from being embedded in a larger system, a world polity consisting of common legitimating models. But states are not the only globally enacted model. More and more organisations, from scientific associations to feminist groups, from standard-setting bodies to environmental movements, helped to elaborate and implement this common world culture.
By the end of the twentieth century, world culture became the constitutive element in world society. But it cannot claim global consensus; regions differ, for example, in their interpretation of core notions such as individual rights. Nor is world culture free from contradiction; it contains values such as freedom and equality that are necessarily in tension. Enacting global models will not lead to a completely homogeneous world, if only because institutionalisa-tion under different conditions will produce significant local variation. World culture actually produces new conflicts, for when many believe they live in one world under universally valid principles, they become critical of state actions that deviate from global norms. Since the state of the world is always
bound to fall short of high global standards, world culture actually encourages the discovery of new social problems. But the world-wide recognition of problems, ranging from global warming to corruption, is a sign of world culture's current strength. In a diverse, conflictual, and decentralised world, it provides common models for thinking and acting.
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3. 1.
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4. . .
1. Ever since the term globalisation was first used to make sense of large-
scale changes, scholars have debated its meaning and use.
2. The term globalisation was used increasingly to express concern about
the consequences of global change for the well-being of various groups,
the sovereignty and identity of countries, the disparities among peoples,
and the health of the environment.
3. Intellectual debate blended with political conflict; in the years to come,
debates and conflicts surrounding globalisation will increasingly affect
the processes captured by the term.
4. According to one popular view, globalisation is the inexorable integra
tion of markets, nation-states and technologies to a degree never wit
nessed before in a way that is enabling individuals, corporations and na-
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tion-states to reach round the world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before.
Discussions of globalisation often convey a sense that something new is happening to the world: it is becoming a "single place", global practices, values, and technologies now shape people's lives to the point that we are entering a "global age", and global integration spells the end of the nation-state.
Sceptics counter that there is nothing new under the sun since globalisation is age-old capitalism writ large across the globe, or that governments and regions retain distinct strengths in a supposedly integrated world, or that the world is actually fragmenting into civilisational blocs. Globalisation used to be widely celebrated as a new birth of freedom: better connections in a more open world would improve people's lives by making new products and ideas universally available, breaking down barriers to trade and democratic institutions; resolve tensions between old adversaries; and empower more and more people. Politicians opposed to America's global influence and activists opposed to the inequities of oppressive global capitalism portray globalisation as dangerous.
Many authors attribute the dynamics of globalisation to the pursuit of material interests by dominant states and multinational companies that exploit new technologies to shape a world in which they can flourish according to rules they set.
, An alternative view suggests that globalisation is rooted in an expanding consciousness of living together on one planet, a consciousness that takes the concrete form of models for global interaction and institutional development that constrain the interests of even powerful players and relate any particular place to a larger global whole.
, According to one line of argument, globalisation constrains states: free trade limits the ability of states to set policy and protect domestic companies, capital mobility makes generous welfare states less competitive, global problems exceed the grasp of any individual state, and global norms and institutions become more powerful.
Others suggest that in a more integrated world nation states may even become more important: they have a special role in creating conditions for growth and compensating for the effects of economic competition, they are key players in organisations and treaties that address global problems, and they are themselves global models charged with great authority by global norms.
5. .
- think tanks - line of causation - essential and contingent - - unabashed victory - imminent universalisation - - viable state - conceptual framework - welfare state -to return full circle - - - - bypass of history - birth of freedom - turbulent events - - - - - - in the long run - - - - triumph of freedom - - - - to contend with - to set policy - - world history - - dominant states - way of history - - flow of events - .
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& . , , .
World culture theory is a label for a particular interpretati of globalisation that focuses on the way in which participan in the process become conscious of and give meaning to livi in the world as a single place. In this account, globalisati refers both to the compression of the world and the intensificati of consciousness of the world as a whole. It involves the crystallisati of four main components of the global-human circumstance: societi, the system of societies, individuals, and humankind; this tak the form of processes of, respectively, societalisati internationalisation, individuation, and generalisation of consciousne, about humankind. Rather than referring to a multitude of historic processes, the concept above all captures the form in terms of whi the world has moved towards unicity. This form is practically contest Closely linked to the process of globalisation is therefore the probl. of globality or the cultural terms on which coexistence in a sing place becomes possible. World culture denotes the multiple wa of defining the global situation, conceived as responses to this shar predicament.
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9. (); (b) . , .
a) civil, conceptual, cultural, different, economic, empirical, ethnic, Euro
pean, fundamental, general, great, historical, ideological, important, in
ternational, liberal, local, national, nationalistic, new, past, political,
primary, scientific, social, triumphant, viable.
b) approach, awareness, civilisations, communities, consciousness, criteria,
debate, decade, democracy, differences, differentiation, economy, era,
evidence, factors, integration, facts, framework, freedom, history, iden
tity, interpretations, investigation, issues, liberalism, narration, net
work, organisations, period, perspective, populations, process, ques
tions, rights, states, symbolism, system, thinking, types, view, violence,
work.
10. .
A standard complaint about globalisation is that it leads to cultural homogeneity: interaction and integration diminish difference; global norms, ideas or practices overtake local mores; many cultural flows, such as the provision of news, reflect exclusively Western interests and control; and the cultural imperialism of the United States leads to the global spread of American symbols and popular culture. The counter-argument stresses new heterogeneity that results from globalisation: interaction is likely to lead to new mixtures of cultures and integration is likely to provoke a defence of tradition; global norms or practices are necessarily interpreted differently according to local tradition, and one such norm stresses the value of cultural difference itself; cultural flows now originate in many places; and America has no hegemonic grasp on a world that must passively accept whatever it has to sell.
11. . ? - .
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Many scholars and politicians have hoped that the ongoing globalisation process will bring more welfare, democracy, human rights and technological advantages to all people. But now it seems that the negative sides of this process is difficult to be denied. The so-called market forces and technological developments function without ethical considerations. One of the most important teachings of this process has been the confession that market cannot be the main actor in this process otherwise, the polarisation between the rich and the poor continues with accelerating speed.
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13. , .
1. In such conflict, traditions play a special role, since they can be mobi
lised to provide an ultimate justification for one's view of the globe.
2. While world polity models define sovereign states as key actors, ena
bling authorities to construct collective goals and devise the means or
programs to produce them, state officials are not the only ones engaged
in such authoritative creation of value.
3. The government could have long denied democratic freedoms, but it
was unable to prevent the people from moving toward democracy.
4. What it means to live in this place, and how it must be ordered, become
universal questions.
5. To bring both the challenge and the calling into a stable synthesis, to
create a new order distinguished by both peace and justice, will require
of the statesmen of the twenty first century a level of sophistication and
determination that would have amazed those of the twentieth.
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Cyclical crises occur when reduced profit rates and exhaustion of markets lead to recession and stagnation, to be followed by a new period of accumulation.
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While the Europeans started with only small advantages, they exploited these to reshape the world in their capitalist image. States can appeal to a universal doctrine of nationalism to legitimate their particularising claims to sovereignty and cultural distinction. The terrorists claim to be aiming at the end of the war as their ultimate objective.
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10. Peace loving people of the world should have prevented such large-
scale calamities as World War I and World War II.
11. World-cultural standards create strong expectations regarding global
integration and propriety and therefore can easily provoke world-
societal reactions seeking to put things right when individuals, compa
nies, or states violate those standards.
12. This is the most far-reaching programmatic document to have come from
the Russian presidency, and is therefore a source of considerable weight.
13. The newspaper argues that rather than creating rapid, universal human
development, globalisation has widened the gap between rich and poor;
to close it, new global institutions will be needed.
14. The operation could not have been planned unless the military obtained
full knowledge of the capabilities of the enemy.
15. The inventor insisted to have been working on this invention for two
years before making it known to the public.
14. , . .
1. The Europeans were able to established economic ties with other regions because they relied on superior military strength and means of transportation.
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A writer reviews economic, political, and cultural aspects of globalisation and argues that a new form of capitalism is emerging. The crisis of feudalism created such a strong motivation that new markets and resources were sought. 4. In the first part of the fifteenth century, Europe began developing a civilisation equal to the richest and most sophisticated cultures of the East.
5. A reporter found the group positively middle class, not wealthy or well-
connected but simply comfortable, determined and lucky enough, that is
why they had saved a few hundred dollars
6. Different ways of resolving the tensions lead to different variants of
world-cultural models.
7. Europeans reached other parts of the globe because they had strong mo
tivations, such as advances in production and incentives for long
distance trade.
8. These students are so young that they have not specialised in the chosen
field yet.
9. Dating of the Age of Discovery is possible, since it opened the world to
European shipping.
10. There is no way of giving more or less precise definition of European
Historical Consciousness.
11. In the following years debates over globalisation will increasingly affect
international relations.
12. In a "germinal" European phase, starting in the fifteenth century, ideas
about national communities, the individual, and humanity began
growing.
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Common
1) , ; , : to make common cause - , Common Market - , common air - : Syn: communal, collective; 2) , ; , ; , : common land - , common membership , common right - / , common advantage - , common good - , common knowledge - , . Syn: general, public
Consensus
, ; , : to reach a consensus - , , consensus principle - . Syn: unanimity, agreement
Development
l) , , , ; : economic development - , historical development - -
, intellectual development - / , physical development - , development theory - , development strategy - , development model - , development zone - , arrested development - . Syn: progress, growth, expansion, evolution; 2) ;
Freedom
l) , , (from); to gain / secure / win freedom - , to curtail freedom - , . Syn: liberty, independence; 2) ; : political freedom - , freedom of assembly - , freedom of the press - , freedom of speech - , freedom of religion /worship - , freedom from fear - , freedom from want
- . Syn: right, franchise, privilege
Global
, ; , ; , : global disarmament - , global war - (syn: world war), global atmosphere - , global climate - , global communication - , global network - , global theory
- , global village. Syn: world, world-wide, universal,
comprehensive, all-inclusive, total, general
Progress
1. n. l) , ; , : to facilitate progress - , to hinder / impede / obstruct progress - , to make progress - , to be in progress - , , , economic progress - , human progress - , rapid / slow progress - / , scientific progress - , smooth progress - / , spotty progress - , technological progress - , progress of events - ; 2) , : to make progress - , considerable / good / great progress -
2. v. , ; , : to progress to - ( , ). Syn: to advance, to proceed
17. .
Common Market - - common membership - - freedom of assembly - - global disarmament - - spotty progress - - common right - - freedom from fear - - common good - - development zone - - freedom of religion - - technological progress - to make common cause - - - - to curtail freedom - - - smooth progress - - - progress of events - - global village - - - political freedom - - development strategy - - - to secure freedom - -global communication - - to be in progress - - rapid progress - -common air - - .
18. , .
3. What permits not only to preserve but to revive ethnic traditions?
4. What are arguments pro and against globalisation?
5. What is required of the statesmen of the twenty first century?
20, . .
* The Western world has rediscovered in the twentieth century the ancient truth that the business of popular education is neither formal teaching, nor political enlightenment but direct social reconstruction.
{Estate Percy)
* If your only opportunity is to be equal, then it is not equality.
(Margaret Thatcher)
* We live in an age when unnecessary things are our only necessities.
{Oscar Wilde)
* The blessings of Liberty which our Constitution secures may be enjoyed alike by minorities and majorities.
(James K. Polk)
* This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.
{Winston Churchill)
| world progress freedom | society growth universe |
| consensus | advance |
| community development | franchise unanimity |
19. .
1. What is implied under the term "globalisation"?
2. Is globalisation the product of the twentieth century? Why do you think
so?
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