In a language or dialect, a phoneme (from the Greek: φώνημα, phōnēma, "a sound uttered") is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances[1].
Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each phoneme. In other words a phoneme may be realised by more than one speech sound and the selection of each variant is usually conditioned by the phonetic environment of the phoneme. Occasionally allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation).
A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech segments. Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.
e.g. Pit[phit] spit[spit] In English, [p] and [ph] are allophones of the /p/ phoneme.
2 types of allophones: principal and subsidiary
Principal are the allophones which dont undergo any changes in the flow of speech => they are the closest to the phoneme) Ex: [t] -> [to:k]
In the articulation of a subsidiary allophone we observe predictable changes under the influence of the phonetic context.
Ex: [d] occlusive plosive stop, forelingual, apical-alveolar, voiced lenis (the phoneme)
[do:], [dog] the principal allophones
[d] is slightly palatalized before front vowels and [j]: [ded], [did ju:]
withoutplosion before another stop: [guddei], [bad pain]
with nasal plosion before nasal sonorants [m], [n]: [s^nd]
before [l] a literal plosion: [midl]
followed by r [pst alveolar [d]: [dr^m]
before interdental sounds it becomes dental: [bredth]
when followed by [w] it becomes labialized: [dwel]
in word final position its partly devoiced: [ded]
They are all fore-lingual lenis stops, but they show some differences. The allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context.
We cant pronounce a phoneme, we pronounce allophones, which are accompanied by several social and personal characteristics. The actual pronounced sounds which we hear are formed with stylistic, situational, personal and etc. characteristics. They are called phones.
2 ,
The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic(language) unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.
3 aspects of the phoneme:
- material (realized in speech in the form of speech sounds)
- abstract (an abstract language unit)
- functional (distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words)
It is reflected in the following part of the definition: the phoneme is opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.
This is the main aspect of the phoneme. The phonemes are capable of differentiating the meaning of morphemes, wordsand even sentences.
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The phoneme can perform the distinctive function when it is opposed to another phoneme in the same phonetic context.
ka:t - pa:t
In this case the phonemes differ in one articulatory feature backlingual/forelingual. Such features are called relevant (distinctive).
So to establish the phonemic status of a sound it is necessary to oppose one sound to some other sound in the same phonetic context. This procedure is called commutation test.
To conduct this test we must find the so-called minimal pairs. A minimal pair is a pair of words which differ in one sound only. So we replace one sound by another sound and try to find out if the opposed sounds belong to the same or different phonemes.
Now, the commutation test may have three possible results:
Pin sin | the meaning is different so the opposed sounds belong to different phonemes.
P(h)in pin | the meaning is the same so the opposed sounds belong to the same phoneme.
Pin hin | we have a meaningless word, so we cant make any conclusion about the phonemic status of the second sound, we cant identify it.
The phoneme is realized in speech as a set of predictable speech sounds allophones.
The difference between allophones is the result of the difference of the phonetic context (neighbouring sounds)
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- possess similar articulatory features, but they may show phonetic differences.
- They never occur in the same phonetic context
- Are not able to differentiate the meaning.
Principle allophone the allophone which doesnt undergo any changes in the chain of speech, its closest to the sound in isolation.
In subsidiary allophones we observe predictable changes under the influence of the phonetic context.
[d]
D og, d octor principle allophone
Subsidiary:
D i d (1-slightly palatalized; 2- partially devoiced), goo d day (loss of plosion), su dd en (nasal plosion), mi dd le (lateral plosion), d ry (post alveolar)
The actually pronounced sound that we hear reflects phonostylistic, regional, occasional and individual peculiarities, it is called the phone.
Here we can say about phonological and phonetic mistakes.
5.Which phonetic style could be used for the oral presentation of the text? Comment on the extralinguistic factors which determine the prosodic characteristics of the text.
As we know, the most important style forming factor is the purpose (aim) of communication.
According to this factor, we distinguish 5 phonetic styles:
1. Informational style
2. Academic style
3. Publicistic style
4. Declamatory style
5. Conversational style
I think that the best way to present this particular text is academic style.
David Crystal is a prominent linguist and lecturer.
Academic style is the most appropriate. The purpose to inform, instruct, to debate ideas.
Its a public presentation (lecture)
Academic style is the most appropriate. The purpose to inform, instruct, to debate ideas.
Its a public presentation (lecture)
Its most typical prosodic characteristics are:
a) timbre authoritative, instructing, self-assured
b) delimitation: phonopassages phrases intonational groups
c) loudness increased
d) levels and ranges remarkably varied with the passage segments
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e) rate normal, slow on the most important parts of the lecture
f) pauses rather long, especially between phonopassages
g) rhythm properly organized
h) terminal tones High Fall + Low Rise, Fall Rise, Rise Fall Rise; high categoric falls
i) pre-nuclear patterns Stepping and Falling Heads
Academic style is used in lectures, scientific reports, talks at the conferences, in academic discussions. The speakers aim is to convey information and to get it across to the listeners. The most common are High Head and Falling Head. High Falls, Fall-Rises and complex nuclear tones (Rise-Fall-Rise) are often used. The levels are high or medium, the ranges broad or medium; levels and ranges are remarkably varied within the passage; gradual decrease within the supraphrasal unit. Short intonation groups predominate. The tempo is greatly varied; rate is normal, slow in the most important parts of the lecture (rules, conclusions, examples); rate is as flexible as the lecturer wishes it to be. There are a lot of emphatic pauses, they are rather long, especially between the phonopassages; a large proportion of pauses serving to bring out communicatively important parts of utterances: occasional use of breath-taking pauses. Loudness is generally rather high, increased, sometimes to forte. Rhythm is properly organized, especially while giving the rules, reading the laws, drawing conclusions.
This phonetic style is often described as both intellectual and volitional. The speakers aim is to get the information across the listener, to educate, to instruct. It is frequently manifested in lectures, scientific discussions, at conferences, seminars and in classes.
The most pure manifestation of the academic phonetic style is realized in a lecture. There can be difference in the degree of formality and individual manner of the lecturer.
But still we can give a fixed outline of specific characteristics of the academic style presentation:
1. Academic presentations are generally well prepared and even rehearsed by a trained lecturer.
2. The lecturer sounds self-assured, authoritative, instructive and edifying.
3. The prosodic features of this style are varied: the degree of loudness is determined by the size of the audience; pauses are rather long, especially while giving the rules, rhythm is properly organized.
Academic presentations nowadays depend on these factors: the topic, the number of listeners, the qualitative characteristics (ethnic, social, cultural, psychological), character of the relationship between the speaker and the audience.
