.


:




:

































 

 

 

 





. industn - . .

. , , .

Corrosometer 4 200, Rohrback Instruments (), , , , . , . , , . , .

, . , .

8) WELDING (PART I)

Welding has long turned into one of the most widespread techniques of non-detachable joining of metallic and nonmetallic materials. Nowadays this technology include over one hundred different processes which can be conducted in ordinary conditions here on earth, under water and up in space. Directly or indirectly welding accounts for the production of over a half of the GNP in industrialized countries.

Welding can be considered either an ancient art or a modern skill. There is a good evidence that craftsmen welded gold and brass to make jewellery at least as far back as the year 2,000 , and that iron was welded as early as 1,000 . From the industrial standpoint, welding is almost entirely a 20-th century advance.

The pioneering work by Soviet scientists in the study and practical development of welding technologies has been acknowledged throughout the world. The Institute of Electric Welding founded by Academical Ye. Paton and named after him was the leading research institution in the former USSR.

It goes without saying that a major breakthrough in metal welding technologies would have been impossible without a thorough fundamental research, without the use of the latest achievements in solid state physics, physical chemistry, plasma physics, cybernetics, nuclear physics and other basic sciences.

Generally we think of welding as a process of joining together metallic parts by putting them into contact and heating the places of contact to the state of fusion or plasticity. However, a weld can be made without heat - applying high pressure.

Welding finds a widespread application in almost all branches of industry. Hardly can any branch of industry do without welding. Frameworks of industrial and civil buildings, bridges, piling of offshore platforms, pipelines, supports of transmission lines, radio and electronic devices, medical instruments are made with the help of welding.

Welding processes may be classified according to the source of energy employed for heating metals and the state of the metal at the place being welded. The sources of energy mainly applied for welding are electricity and mixtures of different gases.

According to the state of the metal at the place being welded welding processes are classified into fusion and pressure welding processes.

In fusion welding the welding area is heated by a concentrated source of heat to a molten state and a filler metal must be added to the weld. The most widely used fusion welding process is electric arc welding. The inventor of this method was a Russian scientist Nikolai Benardos. who in 1886 used electricity from batteries to provide current for an arc between a carbon electrode and a workpiece. Later carbon electrodes were replaced with metal ones. Different electric arc processes have been developed since then. To provide a sound weld the metals to be welded are sometimes placed in an inert gas medium (argon, for example) or are welded under a layer of flux which excludes oxygen in the welding zone and improves the quality of the weld.

In pressure welding processes the metal parts to be welded are heated to a plastic or slightly fused state, after that external pressure is applied. The oldest pressure welding process is forge welding. Now a very popular process is resistance welding which includes spot welding, seam welding and butt welding.

 

( I)

. , , , . .

. , , , 2000 , 1000 . , 20- .

. Ye. - .

, , , , , , .

, , , . , - .

. . , , , , , , .

. , - .

.

​​ . . . 1886 . . . (, ) .

, , . . , , .

ELECTROSLAG WELDING

Electroslag welding was invented and introduced into practice in the USSR in 1949 and found its first industrial application in 1950. In electroslag welding heat is generated by the electrical resistance of a molten slag (flux) to the passage of the welding current. No arc exists after the welding process has begun.

It is electroslag welding that offers a number of important advantages in comparison with other existing methods of electric arc welding of heavy duty and very thick metal pieces.

This method offers a high quality weld due to the protective properties of the slag. The slag prevents the workpieces to be welded to come into contact with the air oxygen. This method doesn't require preliminary cleaning of the parts to be welded. Besides, the rate of welding has considerably increased - from 3 to 15 times (depending on the metal thickness).

An example of the electroslag application is welding of rotor shafts for electric generators. These shafts weigh 350 tonnes. In Japan in order to manufacture a part like that another shaft, a moulded one, weighing up to 500 tonnes is fabricated. It is a very complicated job. The scientists from the Paton Institute suggested assembling the shaft piece by piece out of several sections. These sections are joined together by means of electroslag welding. This method saves metal and energy, makes the workpieces even stronger and is known to be a labour saving method.

Besides electroslag method is successfully used in metallurgy and in repair jobs.

1949 1950 . () . , .

, .

- . , . . , - 3 15 ( ).

. 350 . , , , 500 . . . . , , , .

.

RESISTANCE WELDING

Resistance welding incorporates a group of processes in which the heat for welding is generated by the resistance to the flow of electric current through the parts being joined. It is a common practice to weld two overlapping sheets or plates which may have different thicknesses. A pair of electrodes conducts electrical current through the sheets forming a weld. The two outer surfaces of the sheets are clamped to provide a good electrical contact and pressure for containing the molten metal at the center of the joint. The surfaces must be clean. The current needed for resistance welding may be ten to one hundred times more than that used in arc welding, and the time to make a single weld is usually less than one second.

There are three major resistance welding processes: resistance spot welding, projection welding and resistance seam welding. In spot welding the current is concentrated at the point of joining using cylindrical electrodes which have spherical tips. Spot welds are usually made one at a time. In projection welding a projection or dimple is stamped in one of the sheets prior to welding which concentrates the current conducted by flat electrodes on both sides of the joint. In seam welding leaktight welds can be made by a series of overlapping spot welds. These are produced by introducing pulses of current from rotating wheel electrodes.

Resistance welds are made with either semiautomatic or mechanized machines.

 

, . , . , . , . ., 12:50 , , , , , .

: , . , . . , . . .

.

WELDING (PART II)

The preparatory steps which precede actual welding are significant to any successful welding operation. Such things must be considered as a welding method to be used, the choice of the base and filler metals, the actual joint design and often the inspection methods which arc to be used.

The proper cleaning of the surfaces to be joined is one of the main conditions for obtaining high-quality welds in the majority of welding processes. Moreover, the heating of metals to a high temperature causes oxidation and a film of oxides is formed on the heated surfaces that weakens the weld. To avoid it, a flux is applied to the heated metal. At the welding heat the flux melts, and the oxide particles are dissolved in it together with any other impurities which may be present. Fluxes are used in submerged arc welding. The inventor of this method was a Russian engineer N.G. Slavjanov who first demonstrated this method as early as 1888. He was the first to use consumable electrodes.

Another way to obtain a sound weld is to weld metals in the environment of inert gases, mainly argon or helium or their mixture. These gases are called shielding gases. When used shielding gases improve the quality of the weld as well.

Shielding gases may be used in arc processes, with both consumable and nonconsumable electrodes being applied. Consumable electrodes serve both as conductors of electricity and a source of a filler metal. An example of this process is gas-shielded metal-arc welding.

In welding processes with nonconsumable electrodes the conductor of electricity is a metal electrode and a filler metal is provided separately. Inert-gas tungsten-arc welding in which a tungsten electrode is used is an example of this process. It was introduced in the 40's for welding magnesium. Nowadays it is of great significance for welding not only magnesium but also aluminium, titanium, stainless steels.

Later plasma arc welding was developed. It is a kind of inert-gas-shielding processes. Plasma is a stream of ionized gas. It is so hot and dense that it melts through thick metals and works efficiently on even the toughest alloys. Plasma welding can be used on the materials that do not conduct electricity. This method is used not only for welding but also for cutting aluminium and stainless steels, as well as for high-speed cutting of carbon steels. By the way. different welding processes can be used for cutting metals and for hardfacing.

There are some more melting processes which are certain to play important roles in years to come. In electron beam welding a stream of electrons is focused on the welding zone. The beam has a great penetrating power, it can be used to weld almost any metal, in almost any thickness.

In laser beam welding a beam of light is used instead of a beam of electrons. Like the electron beam, this light has a great penetrating power: 

As mentioned above one of the preparatory steps which preceeds actual welding is the choice of a base metal and a filler metal. A sound weld can be obtained when the base metal possesses good weldability which is affccted by the chemical composition of the metal, its physical properties, the degree of alloying, the presence of impurities and the heat treatment to which it is subjected. So before welding one must know all these data and choosc the filler metal of the proper composition.

The following elements present in the base metal if they exceed the permissible amounts can deteriorate the weldability of steels. Carbon if it exceeds 0.3 per cent causes brittleness of the weld. Phosphorus in amounts more than 0.04 per cent increases brittleness as well. The sulphur content being over 0.04 per cent, red shortness is caused.

The concentration of heat in a small area in welding can lead to considerable internal stresses. To avoid it heat treatment is used. Heat treatment is a very important engineering process. The purpose of heat treatment is to improve the structure of steel and to obtain higher or specified mechanical properties. The metal structure is changed by means of 3 techniques, i.e.: 1) heating the metal to a predetermined temperature; 2) holding it at this temperature for a prescribed period of time and at last 3) cooling it at a prescribed rate. The types of heat treatment applied in practice are: 1) annealing, 2) normalization, 3) hardening and 4) tempering.

If applied heat treatment relieves internal stresses in the metal, refines the grain and reduces hardness. The metals become more plastic and ductile.

After welding welded structures should be inspected to avoid failures. There are different ways of welds inspection, among them radiography (using highly penetrating X-rays and gamma rays), ultrasonic testing, electrical resistance principle.

It should be mentioned that due to the development of new branches of industry new welding processes are being developed and introduced successfully, e.g. ionic, diffusion, ultrasonic, electromagnetic processes and others.

In conclusion it should be noted that there are manual, semi-automatic and automatic welding processes.

 

( II)

, . , , .

, . , , . , . , , . . . . Slavjanov 1888 . , .

, . . , .

, . . .

. , . 40- . , , , .

. - . . , . , . , , . . .

, , . - . , , .

. , :

, . , affccted , , , , . choosc .

, , . , 0,3 . 0,04 , . 0,04 , .

. . . . 3 , : 1) ; 2) , , , 3) . : 1) , 2) , 3), 4) .

, . .

, . , ( -), , .

, , , , , , .

, , .

 





:


: 2016-11-18; !; : 1048 |


:

:

, .
==> ...

1775 - | 1593 -


© 2015-2024 lektsii.org - -

: 0.04 .