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BERYLLIUM

Beryllium as a metal was not known in the past. But its minerals such as emerald,.. - marine, alexandrite were well-known as precious stones. Now beryllium is one of the most zrkable elements of tremendous theoretical and practical importance.

Mastery of the air and flights of aircraft and balloons are impossible without light metals.

-: "tists forecast that beryllium would help aluminium and magnesium, the current aircraft

-: ils. The future belongs to beryllium!

A study of pure beryllium has demonstrated that it possesses many valuable properties. The atomic weight of beryllium is 9.1.

Being one of the lightest metals, beryllium at the same time is remarkably strong,

- "-sr than structural steels. Moreover, it has a much higher melting point than magnesium and - nium. This fortunate combination of properties makes beryllium one of the basic aircraft

- - erials today. Aircraft parts made of beryllium are one and a half times lighter than those

- of aluminium.

Excellent thermal conductivity, high heat capacity, and heat resistance make it possible to use beryllium and its compounds in space engineering as a hcat-protcctive material. According to American press reports, the nose cone and floor of the cabin of the Freindship-7 spacecraft, on which John Glenn made his orbital ilight in 1998 were manufactured from beryllium.

Parts made from beryllium are capable of maintaining high precision and stability of dimensions and are used in gyroscopes, instruments of the orientation and stabilization systems installed on rockets, spacecrafts and artificial earth satellites.

There is yet another property of beryllium which makes it promising in space engineering: while burning it releases colossal amounts of heat - 15 000 kcal per kilogram. Thus, it may well be used in highly efficient propellants for flights to the Moon and other celestial bodies.

 

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4) FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

Both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys are largely used in all branches of machine-building. As it was mentioned above they are fabricated into desired shapes by the following processes: casting, rolling, forging, pressing, stamping, machining and joining.

The principle ferrous materials used are: pig iron, cast iron, wrought iron and steel. Everybody knows various kinds of steels to be applied in industry - mild steels, carbon steels and alloy steels.

Pig iron may be said to be the starting point in the production of all other ferrous materials. Metallurgists consider it to contain from 92 to 97 per cent iron. The remainder is carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus.

Cast iron is pig iron which has been modified in structure by remelting usually with the addition of steel scrap and by casting it into moulds.,

Wrought iron which is now seldom produced is the iron from which nearly all carbon and most of sulphur, phosphorus,'^tc^Tiave keen removed by a process known as puddling.

Steel may be roughly defined as an alloy of iron and carbon. The percentage of carbon may be varied from almost zero in mild steels, u^to 2.14 in some tool steels. Besides, alloying elements such as nickel, dhromium, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt and copper are known to be present in these steels. As is known, if metallurgists want to change the properties of the steel they vary either the composition of it by alloying or use heat treatment, or both.

Non-ferrous allovs are alloys which have been developed on the basis of non-ferrous metals. They are defined according to their dominant element. v

Copper-base alloys are used where high thermal or electrical conductivity is the chief requirement. < -if

Aluminium-base alloys are used where light weight is a primary requirement. It should be noted that they are widely used due to their high corrosion resistance. Besides, aluminium- base alloys have desirable combination of mechanical properties with thermal and electrical conductivity.

Magnesium-base alloys are used where light weight is needed.

There are also lead-base alloys, tin-base alloys, zinc-base alloys, nickel-base alloys and others. i r 4//^

Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals are known to possess in some degree the following properties: elasticity, ductility, malleability, toughness, brittleness, hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. ^ t tx.'^ (■''■■ r!/:,,.,, ,,

Each of these properties should be taken into consideration in choosing the proper production processes. In addition, the processing engineer is tequire^ to be familiar with one more property - the mechanical strength of materials. It may be defined as the ability of a construction to withstanatensile, compressive and shearing stresses under all kinds of loads and under different temperatures.

 

 

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WICKED TRICKS OF TIN

In 1910 Captain Robert Scott, the famous British polar explorer, fitted out an expedition to the South Pole, at that time still a terra incognita. The expedition went forward through the lifeless ice desert of the Antarctic, leaving behind small boxes of food and cans of kerosene for the explores to use them on the way back.

At the beginning of 1912 the expedition finally reached its destination but to the men's great disappointment they found a note there which made it clear that they had been preceded by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen one month earlier. However, Captain Scott's worst misfortune was yet to come. On the way back they found out that the expedition was left without kerosene: the cans were empty. The kerosin had leaked out. The people, exhausted, freezing and hungry, could not either warm themselves up or prepare anything to eat.

The result was awful - Captain Scott and his friends soon died. What was the reason for the mysterious disappearance of the kerosene? Why did the expedition so carefully planned end so tragically? What was Captain Scott's mistake?

It was quite simple: the kerosene cans had been soldered with tin. The explorers were ignorant of the fact that at freezing temperatures tin "catches a cold", first losing its luster and becoming dull grey and then turning into powder. This phenomenon - "tin plague" - led to the tragedy of the expedition.

Meanwhile this fact was known as early as the Middle Ages.

At the end of the 19lh century a train carrying bars of tin was sent from Holland to Russia. When the cars were unsealed in Moscow they contained some grey and useless powder - it was Russian winter which had played a wicked trick on the buyers of tin.

At about the same period a well-equipped expedition set out for Siberia. It seemed everything had been taken care of to ensure its success, except one thing: tin dishes had been taken. The result was that after a while spoons and bowls had to be carved from wood if the expedition was to go any further.

At the very beginning of the 20th century a shocking incident occurred at an army in St. Petersburg: it was discovered, that all tin buttons had vanished from the soldiers' uniforms and the boxes that were supposed to contain such buttons were full of a grey powder.

The contents of the boxes were analyzed. The substance in them was tin. It was the chemical phenomenon known as 'tin plague'.

What are the processes that cause tin to disintegrate?

Only after discovering X-rays metallurgists enabled to take a look inside the metal and study its crystalline structure. Tin (and other metals) seems to have different crystalline forms under different circumstances. The properties of different crystalline forms differ from the properties of the original metal. Thus, at a temperature of minus 33C tin turns into a powder (tin plague) and at a temperature belowl3C a new modification - grey tin - is formed. It loses the properties of metal and becomes a semiconductor.

 

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HISTORY OF WROUGHT IRON

There is a town in England with a strange name Ironbridge near the Ironbridge Gorge. What does the name of the town come from?

For 3,000 years iron has been one of the essential features of human civilization, and for the greater part of that period wrought iron has been the most commonly used form of the metal. Today the manufacture of wrought iron has almost stopped.

Many of the most important innovations in iron manufacture in eighteenth century England took place in the Ironbridge Gorge, including the experiments in the manufacture of wrought iron using mineral fuel. There were many eighteenth and nineteenth century wrought- iron works in the area which employed puddling process.

Not far from Ironbridge there were wrought iron forges which included puddling furnaces, a steam hammer and a rolling mill. Now one of the forges is a museum which demonstrates the manufacture of wrought iron in the puddling furnaces.

The Ironbridge Gorge is said to be the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. The district's rich resources of coal, limestone and iron ore were used as early as the sixteenth century.

In 1709 Abraham Darby first smelted iron with coke. Darby'a discovery led to the making of the first iron wheels, railways and cast iron steam-engine cylinders. In 1787 the ironmaster John Wilkinson launched an iron barge: it floated. However, it was the erection of the cast-iron bridge in 1779 which brought real fame to this part of England and provided the name for the town.





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