British painting reached its zenith in the 18th and early 19th century. Beginning with Hogarth, a school of painting appeared that could be identified as characteristically British. The one hundred years between 1750-1850 witnessed the development of the three art forms: portraiture, landscape and genre, that became the hallmarks of British painting.
However, up to the third quarter of the 18th century portraiture was practically the only form of painting in Britain. It is quite explainable as the Englishmans standard of living had become very high by the middle of the century and those who had achieved success wished they could be remembered for posterity.
This demand for portraits was most successfully met by a gifted painter Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), who didnt want British art to be so provincial and isolated. It was he who insisted that English artists should be brought into line with European art and that they should develop the Grand Style of painting.
When the Royal Academy was founded in 1768, it was obvious that Reynolds was the only possible choice for President. From 1769 to 1790 he delivered lectures every year at prize-giving ceremonies. These lectures were regarded as the most sensible exposition of the Academic view that by well-directed work it was possible to learn the Rules of Art and use discoveries and ideas of the old masters to create a new style of ones own.
In these lectures Reynolds recommended that the would-be painter should put his faith in old masters, from whom he should be ready to borrow. He advised that in portraits the grace should consist more in taking the general air than in exact rendering of every feature. He suggested that the proportions of a sitters figure should be altered in accordance with a fixed ideal. Thus a young woman should have the proportions of the goddess Diana, and her height should be exactly ten times the length of her face. He considered it necessary that the hand should be the same length as the face and the big toe should be the same length as the nose. If the ladies of the 18th century seem impossibly tall and willow-like, it is Sir Joshuas theories rather than the physical peculiarities of English women that are responsible for it.
In his teaching Reynolds also proposed that drapery and clothing should be the subject of rules. In his opinion it was desirable that painters in the Grand. Style should paint clothing as neither woollen, nor silk, satin or velvet: it should be drapery and nothing more. The drapery shouldnt remind one of contemporary costumes, the familiarity of which alone was enough to destroy all dignity. Thus the draperies have nothing to do with the costumes of the period and are merely imaginary dresses skilfully arranged to form an impressive frame for the aristocratic personage. Finally he taught that everything in the picture should look very natural. Thus Reynolds tried to fuse portraiture with historical painting.
However, the painter who did most to introduce another type of subject matter into English art was Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788). Of a poetic nature he was the antithesis of the businesslike Reynolds. He abhorred rules and cared little about the old masters. By necessity a portraitist, he was by inclination and disposition a landscapist. I am sick of portraits, I wish I could walk off with my viola-da gamba to some sweet village where I could paint a landscape, he wrote. His dreamlike landscapes heralded the great English school of landscape painting.
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His lead was followed in the next generation by perhaps the greatest landscapist, John Constable (1776-1837). Like Gainsborough he ignored the rules established by Reynolds. He insisted that art should be based on observation of nature on the one hand and feeling rather than logic and reason on the other. Constable was the herald of romanticism. But the realistic quality of his art is sensed very strongly. It was best expressed by an eccentric contemporary who put up an umbrella while looking at his landscapes.
The furious apostle of the philosophy of romanticism was William Blake (1757-1827), who was bitterly opposed to the rules of Reynolds, proposing that the guiding force for creative spirit should come from imagination, not reason.
A complete expression of romantic ideal can find itself in the pictures of J.M.W.Turner (1775-1851). Although his great talent was recognized at an early age he deliberately turned his back on the glittering social world of London.
Victorian England, which found it more important that a man be a gentleman in the first place and only in the second be a genius, never forgave him.
. 3. :
1. When did British painting reach its zenith? 2. What art forms became the hallmarks of British painting? 3. What was the only form of painting in Britain up to the third quarter of the 18th century? 4. What did Sir Joshua Reynolds propose when the Royal Academy was founded? 5. What did he recommend in his lectures? 6. What did Thomas Gainsborough introduce into English art? 7. What did John Constable insist on? What did he ignore? 8. What did William Blake propose? 9. What couldnt Victorian England forgive Turner?
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. 1. . :
1. To do it seemed a natural thing. 2. Andrew was the third to be interviewed. 3. There is always a question or two to be considered. 4. It is so glorious to love and to be loved. 5. I was glad to have seen this man. 6. I happened to be spending a day in Paris. 7. He looked too young to have taken part in this conference.8. I am glad to have been working at school all these years. 9. He hoped to be sent with that expedition.
. 2. , to be. to be :
1. How are they to know that you are here? 2. In silence the soup was finished excellent, if a little thick; and fish was brought. In silence it was handed. 3. I am leaving tonight. 4. The house was too big. 5. It will be much cooler there. 6. They were to go to Spain for the honeymoon. 7. They were thus introduced by Holly. 8. When I returned to town the school was still being built. 9. I never talk while I am working. 10. She is to say nothing of this to anybody.
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. 3. , to have:
1. As I was to be there at 5 oclock, I had to take a taxi. 2. I did not have to walk, I took a tram. 3. I am a little frightened for I have lost my way. 4. Have you ever translated technical articles? 5. I am tired. I shall go and have a nap before dinner. 6. Id like to have a look at that part of the world. 7. She wants to have her hair cut. 8. You will have many new friends.
. 4. , Participle I II. :
1. The flying plane is TU-144. 2. The broken cup was lying on the floor. 3. The lost document was returned to Helen. 4. The girl playing in the garden is my daughter. 5. Passing the shop I saw a beautiful dress. 6. She sat looking out of the window. 7. I saw her smiling. 8. All books taken from the library were new. 9. She sent all the letters written by her father. 10. Knowing English well she spoke fluently.
. 5. , :
1. Watching football matches may be exciting enough, but of course it is more exciting playing football. 2. Can you remember having seen the man before? 3. She was terrified of having to speak to anybody, and even more, of being spoken to. 4. He never agreed to their going on that dangerous voyage. 5. He did not approve of her drinking so much coffee. 6. The teacher of mathematics did not approve of his pupils dreaming.
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. 1. . :
1. My friend was glad to have been given such an interesting assignment. 2. To know her is to love her. 3. I wanted to be answered at once. 4. We are happy to have been working together all these years. 5. He likes to speak with us on this subject. 6. I ought not to have stayed there so long. 7. I hoped to have written you a long letter. 8. I dont like to be interrupted. 9. This work must be finished today.
. 2. , to be. to be :
1. Erik says that you may be coming to New York. 2. We are to go there tonight. 3. Where is he to be found? 4. What were you doing at that time? 5. I am fond of animals. 6. He was not answered. 7. He may be ill. 8. They are in the next room. 9. My sister says I am to leave you alone. 10. She was my friend.
. 3. , to have:
1. He had his watch mended. 2. Lets have a smoke in the corridor. 3. She has no time for me. 4. You have to go to the dentist. 5. Where have you been since last Thursday? 6. I have known him for many years. 7. These two had not spoken to each other for three days and were in a state of rage. 8. Did you have to walk all the way home?
. 4. , Participle I II. :
1. The flying plane is TU-144. 2. The broken cup was lying on the floor. 3. The lost document was returned to Helen. 4. The girl playing in the garden is my daughter. 5. Passing the shop I saw a beautiful dress. 6. She sat looking out of the window. 7. I saw her smiling. 8. All books taken from the library were new. 9. She sent all the letters written by her father. 10. Knowing English well she spoke fluently.
. 5. , :
1. After being corrected by the teacher, the students papers were returned to them. 2. I wondered at my mothers having allowed the journey. 3. On being told the news she turned pale. 4. All the happiness of my life depends on your loving me. 5. I object to his borrowing money from you. 6. I stretched out my hand to prevent her from attacking you.
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. 1. . :
1. Nothing can be done, Im afraid. 2. He could have written the composition much better. 3. Its very nice of you to have come. 4. Can he be waiting for us? 5. I think you should have told him you were sorry. 6. The facts are too few to be spoken about. 7. He must have forgotten my address. 8. To see is to believe. 9. She looked too young to have been working as a teacher for three years. 10. We happened to be staying at the same hotel.
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. 2. , to be. to be :
1. We are to wait for them at the entrance. 2. What is to become of him? 3. I havent been given a chance to explain. 4. We were told some interesting news. 5. Peter is busy. 6. They are in the language laboratory. 7. What are you crying for? 8. You were to arrive yesterday. 9. I am telling you the truth. 10. You have been a good deal talked about.
. 3. , to have:
1. Have you got a letter for me, postman? 2. What have they done? 3. She was no fool. She had read much, in several languages, and she could talk of the books she had read with good sense. 4. She knows what she has to do. 5. They will have to come here again. 6. He had his leg broken. 7. I had breakfast at home. 8. She has not slept since that night.
. 4. , Participle I II. :
1. The flying plane is TU-144. 2. The broken cup was lying on the floor. 3. The lost document was returned to Helen. 4. The girl playing in the garden is my daughter. 5. Passing the shop I saw a beautiful dress. 6. She sat looking out of the window. 7. I saw her smiling. 8. All books taken from the library were new. 9. She sent all the letters written by her father. 10. Knowing English well she spoke fluently.
. 5. , :
1. At last he broke the silence by inviting everybody to walk into the dining-room. 2. I understand perfectly your wishing to start the work at once. 3. The place is worth visiting. 4. He keeps insisting on my going to the south. 5. Do you mind my asking you a difficult question? 6. She could not help smiling.
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LESSON 1
: Complex Object ( ), Complex Subject ( ), For-to-Infinitive Construction ( for).
Complex Object
, :
I want (?) to go to London. - (?) .
( Participle I) (me, us, you, him, her, it, them), ( ) .
I want Jane to go to London.
Complex Object , : , , , .
, I want Jane to go to London , .
