1. ( ) . , 15% (.) NaCl 100 15 NaCl 85 2.
.
2. ( ) , . (N2)
,
(N1)
,
n1 n2 .
3. () . ( ) . , 2 2SO4 , , = 2 /3.
.
4. ( ) . m. , H2SO4 m=2 / (2) , () 2SO4. .
.
5. ( ) . , , n ( ) . , 2 . 2SO4 , 2 2SO4, 98 2SO4.
.
, , .
, .
:
, , , , . V1 1 N1 V2 2 N2. , N1V1 1 N2V2 2. ,
N1V1 = N2V2
.. .
( ) , . .
, , , , . , .
|
|
, , . , . , .
, , .
p0, p, p0 p = p . -
.
:
,
n2 n1 , .
:
.
. , , .
. - , , .
, .
, , Dt. Dt.. Dt. Dt . () , , .
, . , :
Dt = m,
Dt = m;
, - , . = 1,86; = 0,516; m .
|
|
, g , , :
; .
,
Dt = . Dt. = , g = = 1000 .
(.. ) , , , .
, :
= ×R×T,
R . =n/V, n , ; V , , , :
×V = n×R×T.
-: , , .
:
,
m2 , ; V , .
1. .. . .: , 1978. . 202-227.
2. .., .., .., .. , . .: ii, 1996. . 115-121.
3. .., .., .. . .: , 2005. . 46-52.
7.
:
1. .
2. .
3. .
, .
. .
, *, () ().
.
<=> ++-.
, .
.
( - ) . ( ) . +- , , :
.
() , :
+ 2 <=> +(2) + -(2).
+(2) -(2) .
: , . , F l1 l2, r , ε . 20 ε = 80, 80 .
|
|
, .
, (-) :
,
3+ - .
( , ..) .
, -:
+ 2 <=> +(2) + - + (-)2,
+ - .
( , ..) .
:
() + () → + ,
.
, :
>
2H2SO4 + Mg(OH)2 Mg(HSO4)2 + 2H2O;
Mg(HSO4)2 <=> Mg2+ + 2HSO4-;
= ()
H2SO4 + Mg(OH)2 MgSO4 + 2H2O;
MgSO4 <=> Mg2+ + SO42-;
<
H2SO4 + 2Mg(OH)2 (MgOH)2SO4 + 2H2O;
(MgOH)2SO4 <=> 2MgOH+ + SO42-;
, .
.
, , . , .
.
: a, .
a , , .
a . a = 0, ; a = 1 a = 100 % .
, , , a.
+- + 2 <=> +(2) + -(2)
, , . , :
1. , . , a a = 1 .
2. , .
|
|
:
,
[+], [A-] [KA] - ( -/) ( /).
, . a .
a . + -
[+] = [-] = a,
; a .
[]=(1- a).
.
.
a , 1- a ≈ 1
.
, .
, , ( ), ( ). , 23 :
I : 23 <=> + + 3-
.
II : 3- <=> + + 32-
.
, .
(25 ):
3 | <=> | H+ + CH3COO- | 1,7610-5 |
NH4OH | <=> | NH4+ + OH- | 1,7910-5 |
HNO2 | <=> | H+ + NO2- (18 C) | 410-4 |
H2S | <=> | H+ + HS- | 610-8 |
H3PO4 | <=> | H+ + H2PO4- | 7,5210-3 |
HF | <=> | H+ + F- | 6,6110-4 |
HCN | <=> | H++CN- | 7,910-10 |
, , , .
: .
: , , , .
, .
:
AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl¯ + NaNO3
: Ag+ + NO3- + Na+ + Cl- AgCl¯ + Na+ + NO3-.
, , :
Ag+ + Cl- AgCl¯.
.
:
Fe3+ + 3OH- Fe(OH)3¯.
:
Na2S + H2SO4 H2S + Na2SO4;
2Na+ + S2- + 2H+ + SO42- H2S + 2Na+ + SO42-;
2H+ + S2- H2S.
:
. . , (, ) , .
NaOH + HCl H2O + NaCl
OH- + H+ H2O
(H3O+ + OH- 2H2O).
. .
NH4+ + Cl- + K+ + OH- NH4OH + K+ + Cl-
NH4+ + OH- NH4OH.
. .
2H3COO- + 2Na+ + 2H+ + SO42- 2CH3COOH + 3Na+ + SO42-
CH3COO- + H+ CH3COOH.
: 1. :
2 <=> + + -
2. :
+ + 2 <=> 3+.
, . :
22 <=> 3+ + -.
22 1,810-9, 555000000 . , , :
,
- .
[3+][-] = ʷ[2]2
[2] = const, :
[3+][-] = w.
w .
|
|
1 , 1000 , 1000 /18 = 55,5 ( ).
, 22 :
[3+][-] = 55,51,810-9 = 1,00010-7 -/.
w , : . 10-14.
, . .
, [3+] = [-], . , , , .
, [3+] > [-], . , . , , [3+] < [-], . , .
, . , [+], :
= -lg[+];
Kw = 10-14 (22 ), [+] = 10-7 -/ = 7.
, :
[3+] = [-] = 10-7 -/, = 7.
[3+] > [-] > 10-7 -/, < 7.
[3+] < [-] < 10-7 -/, > 7.
:
, .
, .
: 1
I: NaCl, KNO3; pH=7 | II: Na2CO3, K2S; H > 7 | ||
III: ZnCl2, Al(NO3)3; p < 7 | IV: CH3COONH4, Al2S3 |
, . 2 ↔ + + - . 7.
. , , , .
Na2CO3:
I 2Na+ + CO32- + HOH <=> Na+ + HCO3- + Na+ + OH-
CO32- + HOH <=> HCO3- + OH-;
II Na+ + HCO3- + HOH <=> H2CO3 + Na+ + OH-
HCO3- + HOH <=> H2CO3 + OH-.
Na2CO3 OH-, > 7. , .
ZnCl2:
I : Zn2+ + 2Cl- + HOH <=> ZnOH+ + Cl- + H+ + Cl-
Zn2+ + HOH <=> ZnOH+ + H+;
II : ZnOH+ + HOH + Cl- <=> Zn(OH)2 + H+ + Cl-
ZnOH+ + HOH <=> Zn(OH)2 + H+.
ZnCl2 H+, < 7.
3NH4:
NH4 + CH3COO- + HOH <=> NH4OH + CH3COOH.
. . NH4OH CH3COOH 25 º 1,7910-5 1,7610-5, ( = 7).
: h, .
, , .
, h :
0 £ h £ 1
0 £ h £ 100 %
.
, I Na2CO3 ZnCl2 :
.
:
0 £ £ .
: .
+ <=> +
( ) . , , .
: , .
1. .. . .: , 1978. . 228-260.
2. .., .., .., .. , . .: ii, 1996. . 121-136.
3. .., .., .. . .: , 2005. . 52-65.
8.
:
1. .
2. .
3. . .
. ( ) ( ). . . , , , .
. . . , , , . , .. , . , .
. , .. . - .
, . , . . , , . . , .
, , , , , . . , , (. 8.1. ), . , - . , , (. 8.1. ), .
,
.
. 8.1 , -
: .
) ();
) (). (-
). , , , . . . , .
, , , , , , . .
.
, . . , . , , .
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, , . , , . , . , 3 (), 33 () 2525 ( ) 7-10 . , .
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