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| , . . | Su th erland - ( ) [Ө] [t] | ||
| , . | Backbencher - "" ( ) back is a root, bench is a root, -er is a suffix | ||
| . . | Tom thanked his teachers. . | ||
| () | . . | To plough the sands - / But if an interform of the phrases coincides in both languages, the literal translation is possible. Pandora's box - ( ) | |
| , , . | On December 23, 1856, cries of new life swelled from a North Carolina farmhouse, their source a baby boy named James Buchanan Duke. The lad would have far more impact on the world than the failed president his name honored. 23 1856 , , , . , . , -, . (Steiner, John F., Steiner, George A. Business, Government, and Society: A Managerial Perspective, Text and Cases. USA, 2011. Ch. 3) | ||
| , , . | For example, compare the Russian translation of Ch. Brontës novel Jane Eyre with the original. |
Lecture 2
The Translation Process
1. Classification of the Types (Methods) of Translation
Different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we distinguish between the following types of translation:
| Criterion | Characteristics of the type of translation | |
| According to the overall ST function we distinguish between informative and literary translation. | 1. Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, that is, to provide information to readers. The source texts can be represented by scientific and technical texts, newspaper materials, official papers, public speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc. 2. Literary translation (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) involves various lexical, grammatical and stylistic techniques as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader. | |
| According to the translation approach used in producing the target text, translations can be characterized as semantic or communicative. | Semantic translation attempts render, as close as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. It is appropriate for translation of serious literature, autobiography, personal effusion, any important political or other statement (Introducing translation studies, p. 44-45) whose content is addressed to specialists. Ex: the translation of legislation and legal documents. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original (Introducing translation studies, p. 44-45) whose content is addressed to the general reader. Ex: the translation of Pushkins poems. | |
| According to the degree of modification introduced in the translation, it can be literal or free. | 1) literal translation / word-for-word translation ( ) consists in mechanical substitution of the elements of the original text for their equivalence in the language of the TT (Ex: to play with fire ); 2) free translation / sense-for-sense translation ( ) means rendering the most essential things of a ST without formal correspondences being taken into account. ((Introducing Translation Studies, p. 20) | |
| According to the integrality of translation, i.e. the amount of the ST translated, translation can be either full or selective. | Selective translationis a translation of selected parts of a document (the extraction of information). It covers not only translation of certain passages in a text but also abstracts or summaries prepared on the basis of a ST in another language. (Roda P. Roberts, Towards a Typology of Translations, p. 74) Full translationis a translation of the whole piece of writing, whose content is so important for the recipient that it should be translated into the TL in detail. The most widely used methods of full translation are literal translation, semantic translation and communicative translation. | |
| According to the medium of translation the translation can be oral and written. | 1. Oral translation is commonly known as interpreting or interpretation.
There are two main kinds of oral translation consecutive () and simultaneous ( ). In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed.
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message.
2. Written is the reproduction of the content of the original document by means of the language of translation in written form.
The Russo-American linguist Roman Jakobson (Jacobson 1959/2000 'On Linguistic Aspects of Translation') makes a very important distinction between three types of written translation:
1. intralingual translation - translation within the same language, which can involve rewording, or paraphrase;
2. interlingual translation - translation from one language to another, and
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| According to the ways of employing the newest technologies we distinguish between computertranslation and web-based human translation. | Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program. The machine supports a human translator. Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that seek more accurate translators. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translators, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available. |
2. Translation Strategy
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Hurtado Albirproposes the following definition of translation strategy: Strategyis the procedure used by the translator to solve problems that emerge when carrying out the translation process with a particular objective in mind (Hurtado Albir 1996, 1999).
According to Chesterman translation strategy is a plan that is implemented in a given context. (2005: 26).
Jaaskelainen (2005: 71) considers strategy as, "a series of competencies, a set of steps or processes that favor the acquisition, storage, and utilization of information".
"A 'strategy' is a generalization about typical courses-of-action exhibited by professional translators" (Neubert and Shreve, 1992: 52); they are the standard tools of the trade, the procedures offering a solution to the various types of problems encountered in the translation task.
It is worth mentioning that translation techniques affect the micro-units of text and the results of translation, while translation strategies affect the process of translation.
Translators use strategies for comprehension (e.g., distinguish main and secondary ideas, establish conceptual relationships, search for information) and for reformulation (e.g., paraphrase, retranslate, say out loud, avoid words that are close to the original). Because strategies play an essential role in problem solving, they are a central part of the subcompetencies that make up translation competence.
3. Stages of Translating Process
Description of the translating process is one of the major tasks of the translation theory. The most widespread approach to organizing the translating process includes several steps:
1. Review the material you are going to translate so that you can understand its intent and content. Use your linguistic competence and world knowledge (de-verbalized, theoretical, general, encyclopaedic and cultural) to grasp the sense of the ST.
2. Identify its genre or functional style.
3. Identify the problems you may come across in the process of translation.
4. Identify the units of translation.
5. Make a draft translation.
6. Leave a little extra time to review the text after having finished translating. You should take a break and look at the text with a new perspective, which will allow you to improve your work.
7. Then edit this version:
- check the translation against the original to ensure accuracy of content;
- proofread it carefully to correct typographical errors and grammatical mistakes.
8. Translate the headline.
9. The final stage involves going over your draft to verify that the text reads as one originally produced in the target language - not as a 'translation'.
4. The Problem of the Unit of Translation (UT)
Being one of the fundamental concepts always argued about in the realm of translation, the unit of translation (UT) has been given various definitions by different theorists. Some linguists say that a word cant be the UT because the boundaries between words arent clear and it is difficult to single out a separate word in speech. For example, the noun ice cream and the phrase I scream are pronounced the same. Thats why these authors reject a word as a UT.
Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997) define it as: "a term used to refer to the linguistic level at which ST is recodified in TL" (p. 192). In other words, it's an element with which the translator decides to work while translating the ST. Barkhudarov (1993) defines a UT as the smallest unit of SL which has an equivalent in TL". He recommends that this unit of translation, no matter how long, can itself have a complex structure although its parts separately cannot be translated and replaced by any equivalent in the TL.
Newmark insists that the unit of translation, understood as a segment of the original text from which the translator can begin his or her reformulation in a different language, is part of a movable scale: The word, the lexical unit, the collocation, the group, the clause and the sentencerarely the paragraph, never the text.
On the whole, in modern language the UT is distinguished on the following levels:
| Level | Its characteristics | Example | |
| The level of phonemes | Though a phoneme doesnt bare an independent meaning of its own, it is sometimes used as a UT. In this case a phoneme of a SL is substituted for the similar in articulation and acoustic features phoneme in the TL or graphemes in writing. | Su th erland - ( ) [Ө] [t] | |
| The level of morphemes | The adoption by the TL of a compound word whose components are literal translations of the components of a corresponding compound in the SL. | Backbencher - "" ( ) back is a root, bench is a root, -er is a suffix | |
| The level of words | The unit of the TL is one word and it is much more frequently used in the SL. But such cases are too limited. Only some words in a sentence find their correspondence in the TL. | Tom thanked his teachers. . | |
| The level of collocations (phrases) | Very often their meanings are not equal to the meanings of their components (that is the words they consist of). And in this case they are translated by means of their equivalents in the TL. | To plough the sands - / But if an interform of the phrases coincides in both languages, the literal translation is possible. Pandora's box - ( ) | |
| The level of sentences | When a translator segments a text into translation units, the larger these units are, the better chance there is of obtaining an idiomatic translation. | On December 23, 1856, cries of new life swelled from a North Carolina farmhouse, their source a baby boy named James Buchanan Duke. The lad would have far more impact on the world than the failed president his name honored. 23 1856 , , , . , . , -, . (Steiner, John F., Steiner, George A. Business, Government, and Society: A Managerial Perspective, Text and Cases. USA, 2011. Ch. 3) | |
| The level of text | On this level more attention is paid to producing a naturally reading TT than to preserving the ST wording intact. | For example, compare the Russian translation of Ch. Brontës novel Jane Eyre with the original. |
