| Meaning | Use | Present | Past | |
| permission | + /? | You may use my ISP if you wish. | - | |
| prohibition | - | You may not use my e-mail box. | - | |
| possibility | + / - | It may/might be a faulty program. | The modem may/might not have been switched on. | |
| suggestion | + | We might use other graphical software. | - | |
| complaint | + | They might pay more attention to the instructions. | He might have checked his e-mail at least sometimes. |
Notes:
1. May has only two tense forms: may (present) and might (past), so for other tenses to be allowed (permitted) to do sth. is used.
2. Might is not always the past of may, sometimes it has a present or future meaning. Perfect infinitive after may or might in such cases shows that they refer to the past.
3. Passive and progressive infinitives after may or might are also possible in some cases.
2. , may .
1. This device may not be switched on here. 2. At first the desktop might seem a little foreign to you. 3. Its also more installation procedures than you might expect. 4. Will she be allowed to process these figures? 5. It may have beensaid that the development of modern computers was entirely depended upon developments in integrated circuits. 6. Different combinations of 1s and 0s may be used to represent numbers and characters (letters of the alphabet special characters). 7. Were they allowed to operate that new device? 8. Programs other than the one that is being obeyed may be stored on a backing-store external to the computer memory. 9. You may not be the only person using the program and this is the factor to be considered. 10. Combining both of these technologies might produce a completely new range of possibilities for user of information technology.
MUST
| Meaning | Use | Present | Past | |
| obligation (speakers authority) | + ? | They must provide us with all necessary data. | - | |
| necessity (speakers thought) | + | He must work hard to learn this computer language. | - | |
| prohibition | - | You mustnt press any button. | - | |
| certainty | + | He must be working in the Internet. I cant call him. | They must have already opened this file. |
Notes:
1. Must has no other forms. To express past perfect infinitive can be used sometimes.
2. Had to is the past form of must which refers to a past obligation.
3. Need is used in its negative form to express the lack of necessity.
3. , must .
1. The data must have been lost. I dont see it anywhere. 2. To use a CD-ROM, you must have a computer equipped with a CD-ROM drive. 3. You mustnt interfere with the program work. 4. To read this graphics file you must have used a program that recognized the files format. 5. The user must create sample input data that represents every possible way to enter input.
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SHOULD / OUGHT TO
| Meaning | Use | Present | Past | |
| advice (giving/asking for) | + /? / - | Should these commands be carried out? | - | |
| obligation | + / - | The files ought to be fully defined. | The PC shouldnt have been used inappropriately. | |
| possibility | + | You should see the message on the screen. | They should have carried out the calculations. | |
| complaint | + / - | You should be using another application for this purpose. | These devices should have been handled with great care. |
Note:
Should/Ought to have no other forms. To express past perfect infinitive can be used sometimes.
4. , should/ought to .
1. It determines which operations should be carried out and in what order. 2. They ought to have tested new applications. 3. Make sure your last command is finished. You should see the prompt on the screen. 4. The batteries should not be kept uncharged. 5. What kind of data ought to be typed?
NEED
| Meaning | Use | Present | Past | |
| necessity | + | To do this, you need to understand how the data bus width affects performance. | He needed to back up that file regularly. | |
| no obligation | - | You dont need to use virus scanning every time. | You didnt need to back up these files. |
Notes:
1. Need can be used in different forms with and without to after it.
2. Neednt and dont need to are different.
- We generally use neednt when the authority comes from the speaker and dont need to when the authority doesnt come from the speaker.
- To talk about the past, we use neednt and Perfect Infinitive (means: you did but it wasnt necessary) or didnt need to (means: you knew in advance it wasnt necessary).
5. , need .
1. Most memory chips are now mounted on boards, you neednt have checked for other ports. 2. Nonvolatile media are needed to store programs and data when the power is off. 3. The smaller size reduced the distance electrical signals needed to travel. 4. The fields need not be contiguous in memory, nor do they need to be part of a structure. 5. You can insert the executable code you need to clean up at an embed point.
HAVE TO
| Meaning | Use | Example | |
| necessity (circumstantial) | + / - | You have to follow a number of rules when entering these commands. |
Notes:
1. Have to can be used in all forms (present, past, future).
2. The difference between must and have to is that with must the speaker is giving his own feelings, while with have to he is just giving facts.
3. Mustnt and dont have to are completely different. You mustnt do something means its necessary that you do not do it. When you dont have to do something means it is not necessary to do it; you dont need to do it.
6. , have to .
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1. You dont have to push buttons; these actions occur under the direction of the program you are using. 2. If the program is designed to be sold commercially, the documentation will have to include directions for the user to install the program and begin working with it. 3. You have to remember which entity (set of fields) you described as left and which ones as right. 4. You wont have to compete with other users to gain access to the system. 5. Because of its cost, new information had to be stored in appropriate archives and libraries for use by others.
BE TO
| Meaning | Use | Example | |
| planned action or agreement | + /? | Old PCs are to be replaced next month. | |
| prohibition | - | You are not to start working without antivirus prescan. | |
| necessity (the result of orders or instructions) | + /? | You are to turn off the device at the end of work. | |
| unavoidable events | + /? | What is to happen to the system? |
Note:
1. Be to can be used in all forms (present, past, future).
2. Perfect infinitive after be to can express a planned or agreed action which didnt happen.
7. , be to .
1. An alternative way of expressing the instructions is to use mnemonic codes. 2. In industrial situations, the ability to inspect and, if necessary, reject quickly is desirable if further errors are to be prevented. 3. One of the main objectives of research and development in this field was to provide techniques and equipment capable of helping to control this information explosion. 4. An alternative to bit slice microprocessors for complex systems is to use several microprocessors together. 5. Zip drives are not to be confused with zip files.
WILL / WOULD
| Meaning | Use | Example | |
| willingness, intention, volition | + | It will only use the Toolbar buttons and popup menus for Insert, Change and Delete actions. | |
| possibility | + | Sometimes the escape or altmode key will modify the actions of the next few keys pressed after the escape or the altmode key. | |
| request | ? | Would you help me with the installation procedure. | |
| persistence | - | This program wont work in this operating system. |
8. , will/would .
1. During POST, DMI/ESCD would not be updated. 2. There will not be any warning message in this situation. 3. The system boot would not stop for a disk error. 4. Quick Load pops up a dialog telling you it will create the file. 5. You would then add the procedure to the Application Tree with the Insert Procedure Command.
SHALL
| Meaning | Use | Example | |
| promise, warning (for all the persons) | + | He shall have problems if he starts this program. | |
| suggestion | ? | Shall I carry out these calculations for you? | |
| asking for instructions | ? | Shall we format these disks? |
Note:
Modal verb shall is rarely used in technical language.
9. , .
1. This must have given rise to the development of this type of motherboards. 2. Usually the computers instruction book will fully describe the effect of pressing the control or escape keys. 3. The device might have been added to the list. 4. The starting point of designing a program should be the output. 5. The requirement may have been met in the previous experiment. 6. Sometimes you may need to use the plastic springs to isolate the screw from the motherboard surface. 7. Whether your system can run under these specific bus frequencies properly will depend on your hardware configurations. 8. Before you can use you new disk for storing information, you must format them. 9. You should never alter or delete a configuration file. 10. The system boot would not stop for any error that might be detected.
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10. , .
Design for Decision
Throughout this book I must have been critical of people who produce beautiful thoughts with little or no data behind them. Some readers may have felt that the decision-maker ( ) is a cold-hearted, even grim, method of making decisions. These readers might admit that a machine may be all right for making the scientific decisions or even commercial decisions, but they may have felt that Statistical Decision had no place in their world, that it is meaningless insofar as personal, governmental, or international decisions are concerned.
I disagree with this point of view. I think that Statistical Decision must have played a useful role in a wider class of decisions which have a direct influence on all of us. I certainly do not consider Statistical Decision to be a panacea. It is one method among many methods of reaching decisions. It is not necessarily the best method; there are situations in which intuitive procedures lead to more effective decisions than any existing Decision-Maker. In fact I think that most people must have already used many of the principles in making their decisions. You may have felt that such concepts as mathematical expectations were new and unfamiliar. However, I am sure that you have had to make decisions on the basis of expectations, when you have had to combine probabilities and desirability (though you may not have used these names).
11. , , .
1. Programs which the control unit operates must be in internal memory in order to be processed. 2. It is allowed to alter some features. 3. They are to discuss the results of their pilot research at the next meeting. 4. Drawings can be stored on a hard or floppy disk. 5. Before you start giving these instructions, however, you might like to know how to quit MS-DOS. 6. Also the memory cells could be given symbolic names instead of referring to them by their actual numeric (binary) addresses. 7. Anyone will be able to operate this menu driven program. 8. The costs of microelectronic would continue to decrease and we have not yet seen any significant departure from this law. 9. Each type of logic circuit may be implemented as a microelectronic circuit using microelectronic transistors and resistors. 10. You need to consider and make decisions on the following aspects.
12. , .
| Message | Translation |
| 1. Cannot recover nonremovable drive X. | ) ; ) ; ) . |
| 2. Target disk cannot be used for back-up. | ) , , ; ) , , ; ) , , . |
| 3. Unable to create table in resident memory. | ) ; ) ; ) . |
| 4. Target floppy may be unusable. | ) , , ; ) , , ; ) , , . |
| 5. Drive letter must be specified. | ) , , ; ) , , ; ) , , . |
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13. , .
Hard disk () be divided into one to four separate sections, called partitions. Partitions separate your hard disk into individual areas, and each partition () contain a different operating system.
To prepare your hard disk for the MS-DOS operating system, you () create a partition for MS-DOS, called a DOS partition. You () create a DOS partition on your hard disk by using a menu driven utility called fdisk. You () use fdisk if you want to create or delete an extended DOS partition. You () to follow all the instructions to get the required results.
14. .
Peripheral Equipment
The microcomputer (to communicate) with the outside world, so that programs and data (to enter) into its memory and processed information (to display) or (to transmit) in some form to the microcomputer user.
There are various types of peripheral equipment that (to attach) to microcomputers including keyboards and paper tape readers for input, and visual display units (VDUs) and printers for output. Information (to output) from the microcomputer on to magnetic tape or disk for storage and re-entered when required. Different sensors and actuators (to link) to the microcomputer for controlling instruments and machines.
, , , .
(, ..).
If I were there I should ring you up. -- , .
I wish she would win the game. ,
.
If I knew her address we should -- ,
write to her. .
It is necessary that he should go -- , .
there.
