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They told us, We are going to the library.
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They told us they were going to the library.
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We were told, It was raining a lot.
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We were told that it had been raining a lot.
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She said she would try to get the highest mark on the exam.
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He told us he took part in the Moscow Olympic games in 1980.
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Newton proved that bodies attract each other.
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English is spoken today on all five continents as a result of colonial expansion in the last four centuries or so. The colonial era is now definitely over but its consequences are only too clearly to be seen in the presence of English as an official and often native language in many of the former colonies along with more or less strongly diverging varieties which arose in particular socio-political conditions, so-called pidgins which in some cases later developed into creoles. Another legacy of colonialism is where English fulfills the function of a lingua franca. Many countries, like Nigeria, use English as a lingua franca (a general means of communication) since there are many different and mutually unintelligible languages and a need for a supra-regional means of communication.
English has also come to play a central role as an international language. There are a number of reasons for this, of which the economic status of the United States is certainly one of the most important nowadays. Internal reasons for the success of English in the international arena can also be given: a little bit of English goes a long way as the grammar is largely analytic in type so that it is suitable for those groups who do not wish to expend great effort on learning a foreign language.
Present-day geographical distribution English is spoken on all five continents. With regard to numbers of speakers it is only exceeded by Chinese (in its various forms) and Spanish. But in terms of geographical spread it stands at the top of the league. The distribution is a direct consequence of English colonial policy, starting in Ireland in the late 12th century and continuing well into the 19th century, reaching its peak at the end of the reign of Queen Victoria and embodied in the saying the sun never sets on the British Empire. For the present overview the varieties of English in the modern world are divided into four geographical groups as follows.
| British Isles | America |
| England | United States (with African American English) |
| Wales | Canada |
| Ireland | The Caribbean |
| Africa | Asia, Pacific |
| West Africa | South- and South-East Asia |
| East Africa | Australia and New Zealand |
| South Africa | The Pacific islands |
The two main groups are Britain and America. For each there are standard forms of English which are used as yardsticks for comparing other varieties of the respective areas.
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In Britain the standard is called Received Pronunciation. The term stems from Daniel Jones at the beginning of the present century and refers to the pronunciation of English which is accepted - that is, received - in English society. BBC English, Oxford English, Queens English (formerly Kings English) are alternative terms which are not favored by linguists as they are imprecise or simply incorrect.
In America there is a standard which is referred to by any of a number of titles, General American and Network American English being the two most common. There is a geographical area where this English is spoken and it is defined negatively as the rest of the United States outside of New England (the north east) and the South. General American is spoken by the majority of Americans, including many in the North-East and South and thus contrasts strongly with Received Pronunciation which is a prestige socialist spoken by only a few percent of all the British. The southern United States occupy a unique position as the English characteristic of this area is found typically among the African American sections of the community. These are the descendants of the slaves originally imported into the Caribbean area, chiefly by the English from the 16th century onwards. Their English is quite different from that of the rest of the United States and has far more in common with that of the various Anglophone Caribbean islands.
Those varieties of English which are spoken outside of Britain and America are variously referred to as overseas or extraterritorial varieties. A recent practice is to use the term Englishness (a plural created by linguists) which covers a multitude of forms. The label English World-Wide (the name of an academic journal dedicated to this area) is used to refer to English in its global context and to research on it, most of which has been concerned with implicitly comparing it to mainland varieties of Britain and America and then with trying to determine its own linguistic profile. Extraterritorial varieties are not just different from mainland varieties because of their geographical distance from the original homeland but also because in many cases a type of suspension has occurred vis à vis changes in point of origin, i.e. in many respects the overseas varieties appear remarkably unchanged to those from the European mainland. This phenomenon is known as colonial lag. It is a term which should not be overworked but a temperate use of the term is appropriate and it can be cited as one of the features accounting for the relative standardness of overseas varieties, such as Australian or New Zealand English with regards to British forms of English.
The varieties of English both in Europe and overseas tend to show variation in certain key features, for instance special verbal structures to express aspectual distinctions are common to nearly all varieties in the developing world. Pronunciation and morphology features can equally be classified according to frequency of variation in non-standard forms of the language. To facilitate orientation in this sphere a table of those features is offered below which typically vary among both mainland and extraterritorial forms of English. Note that the variation in the area of lexis (vocabulary) tends to be restricted to two types. The first is the presence of archaic words no longer found in mainland Britain, e.g. the use of bold in the sense of misbehaved or wench as a non-derogative term for woman. The second type contains flora and fauna words. Obviously those speakers of English who moved to new environments were liable to borrow words from indigenous languages for phenomena in nature which they did not know from Europe, thus Australian English has koala, kangaroo, New Zealand English kiwi, etc.
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Information Technology A Definition: We use the term information technology or IT to refer to an entire industry. In actuality, information technology is the use of computers and software to manage information. In some companies, this is referred to as Management Information Services (or MIS) or simply as Information Services (or IS). The information technology department of a large company would be responsible for storing information, protecting information, processing the information, transmitting the information as necessary, and later retrieving information as necessary.
History of Information Technology: In relative terms, it wasn't long ago that the Information Technology department might have consisted of a single Computer Operator, who might be storing data on magnetic tape, and then putting it in a box down in the basement somewhere. The history of information technology is fascinating! Check out these history of information technologyresources for information on everything from the history of IT to electronics inventions and even the top 10 IT bugs.
Modern Information Technology Departments: In order to perform the complex functions required of information technology departments today, the modern Information Technology Department would use computers, servers, database management systems, and cryptography. The department would be made up of several System Administrators,Database Administrators and at least one Information Technology Manager. The group usually reports to the Chief Information Officer (CIO).
Popular Information Technology Skills: Some of the most popular information technology skills at the moment are:
Computer Networking
Information Security
IT Governance
ITIL
Business Intelligence
Linux
Unix
Project Management
.
Information Technology Certifications: Having a solid education and specific specialty certifications is the best way to progress in an information technology career.
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What is information technology, and how does it affect education, health, money, leisure, government, and careers? When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is information technology, or InfoTech. Information technology (IT) is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce, manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information. IT merges computing with high-speed communications links carrying data, sound, and video. Examples of information technology include personal computers but also new forms of telephones, televisions, appliances, and various handheld devices.
The Two Parts of IT: Computers & Communications. There are two important parts to information technology: computers and communications. COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY: A computer is a programmable, multiuse machine that accepts dataraw facts and figuresand processes, or manipulates, it into information we can use, such as summaries, totals, or reports. Its purpose is to speed up problem solving and increase productivity.
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY: Communications technology, also called telecommunications technology, consists of electromagnetic devices and systems for communicating over long distances. The principal examples are telephone, radio, broadcast television, and cable TV. In more recent times, there has been the addition of communication among computerswhich is what happens when people go online on the internet. In this context, online means using a computer or some other information device, connected through a network, to access information and services from another computer or information device. A network is a communications system connecting two or more computers; the internet is the largest such network.
2.
Education: The Promise of More Interactive & Individualized Learning. When properly integrated into the curriculum and classroom, information technology can:1. allow students to personalize their education;2. automate many tedious and rote tasks of teaching and managing classes; and3. Reduce the teachers workload per student, so that he or she can spend more time on reaching individual students. For instance, email, or electronic mail, messages transmitted over a computer network, most often the internet. Besides using the internet to help in teaching, todays college instructors also use presentation graphics software such as PowerPoint to show their lecture outlines and other materials on classroom screens. In addition, they use Blackboard, WebCT, and other course-management software for administering online assignments, schedules, examinations, and grades. One of the most intriguing developments in education at all 2levels, however, is the rise of distance learning, or e-learning, the name given to online education programs. E-learning has been put to such varied uses as bringing career and technical courses to high school students in remote prairie towns, pairing gifted science students with master teachers in other parts of the country, and helping busy professionals obtain further credentials outside business hours. But the reach of information technology into education has only begun. In the future, we will see software called intelligent tutoring systems that gives students individualized instruction when personal attention is scarcesuch as the software Cognitive Tutor, which not only helps high school students to improve their performance in math but also sparks them to enjoy a subject they might have once hated. In colleges, more students may use interactive simulation games, to apply their knowledge to real-world kinds of problems. And employees in company training programs may find themselves engaged in mock conversations with avatars computer depictions of humans, as are often found in online videogamesthat represent imaginary customers and coworkers, combining the best parts of computer based learning with face-to-face interaction.
3. Health: High Tech for Wellness
Telemedicine medical care delivered via telecommunications. For some time, physicians in rural areas lacking local access to radiologists have used tele radiology to exchange computerized images such as X rays via telephone-linked networks with expert physicians in metropolitan areas. Now telemedicine is moving to an exciting new level, as the use of digital cameras and sound, in effect, moves patients to doctors rather than the reverse. Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical information, including that generated by X ray, lab test, and pulse monitor, can now be transmitted to a doctor in digital format. Image transfer technology allows radiologic images such as CT scans and MRIs to be immediately transmitted to electronic charts and physicians offices. Patients in intensive care, who are usually monitored by nurses during off-times, can also be watched over by doctors in remote control towers miles away. Electronic medical records and other computerized tools enable heart attack patients to get follow-up drug treatment and diabetics to have their blood sugar measured. Software can compute a womans breast cancer risk. Patients can use email to query their doctors about their records (although there are still privacy and security issues).Various robots automatic devices that perform functions ordinarily performed by human beings, help free medical workers for more critical tasks; the four-armed da Vinci surgical robot, for instance, can do cuts and stitches deep inside the body, so that surgery is less traumatic and recovery time faster.
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| He says, "Mary will do it." - : . | He says (that) Mary will do it. - , . |
| He says to me, "I know it." : . | He tells me that he knows it. , . |
| He said to me: "I have seen you somewhere." - : - . | He told methat he had seen me somewhere. - , - . |
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| He says, " Ihaveyour book." : . | He says that hehasmy book. , . |
| Mary says, "Peter has taken my dictionary." - : . | Mary says that Peter has taken her dictionary. - , . |
3 , ( ), Present Indefinite, Present Perfect, Future Indefinite, ( ) , :
| He says (has said, will say), "I sent them the catalogue on Monday." - (,): . | He says (has said, will say) that he sent them the catalogue on Monday. - (,), . |
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| He said, "I know it." : . | He said that he knew it. , . |
| "I am working," she said. , - . | She said that she was working. , . |
| He said, "I have translated the text." : . | He said that he had translated the text. , . |
| He said, "I get up at eight o'clock." - : . | He said that he got up at eight o'clock. - , . |
| He said, "I have been waiting for you since five o'clock." - : . | He said that he had been waiting for me since five o'clock. - , . |
) (Past Indefinite Continuous), :
| He said, "I saw her there." : . | He said that he had seen her there. , . |
| She said, "I was reading. " : . | She said that she had been reading. , . |
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| The boy said, "I was born in 1988." : 1988 . | The boy said that he was born in 1988. , 1988 . |
| He said, "I began to study English in 1992." - : 1992 . | He said that he began to study English in 1992. - , 1992 . |
2: , the day before, two years before . ., Perfect:
| She said that she had been there the day before. | , . |
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| He said, "We had finishedour work by six o'clock." - : . | He said that they had finishedtheir work by six o'clock. - , . |
) (Future), (Future in the Past). , shall/will should/would :
| He said, "I will ( shall) go there." : . | He said that he would go there. , . |
| He said, "I ll (shall/will) be workingthis summer." : . | He said that he would be workingthat summer. , () . |
: , , , : can could, may might, have (to) had (to). : must, ought .
| He said, "The contract will be signed in the evening." - : . | He said that the contract would be signed in the evening. - , . |
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| She said, "I must send him a telegram at once." - : . | She said that she had to send him a telegram at once. - , . |
must , must :
| He said to her, "You must consult a doctor." - : . | He told her that she must consult a doctor. - , . |
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| She said to him, "You should (ought to) send them a telegram at once." - : . | She told him that he should (ought to) send them a telegram at once. - , . |
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| this | that , |
| these | those , |
| now | then |
| here | there |
| today | that day |
| tomorrow | the next day |
| the day after tomorrow | two days later |
| yesterday | the day before |
| the day before yesterday | two days before |
| ago | before |
| next year | the next year, the following year |
| last night () | the previous night () |
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| "I ll go there tomorrow," he said. , . | He said that he d ( . would) go there the next day. , . |
| He said, "They werehereyesterday. " : . | He said (that) they had beentherethe day before. , . |
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| I said, "Ill be heretomorrow. " : . | I said (that) Id (I would) be heretomorrow. , . |
| He said, "I live in this house." : " ". | He said that he lived in that house. , () . |
| He said, "I can't translate this article." - : . | He said that he couldn't translate that article. - , . |
| He said, "I shall write the letter tomorrow. " - : . | He said that he would write the letter the next day. - , . |
| He said, "I was here yesterday. " - : . | He said that he had been there the day before. - , . |
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a) Despite the increase in TV watching, reading is still an important leisure activity in Britain. Theres a very large number of magazines and books published on a wide variety of subjects. Sort of books are read by people in Britain:
(romance, thriller, historical, adventure, modern novel, classic, science fiction, horror, humour, history, biography, gardening, education, religion, travel, sport, business, craft.
b) Find the appropriate name from above for each type of books to fit the definition. Try to think of a well-known example of each.
is a long written story, not in poetry, usually about invented people and events.
an old story about great events and people in ancient times, which may not be true.
is a book that tells a story thats not true, but which happens in a different time in the past
and mentions real people or events from that time.
is a short story that teaches a lesson, a story in which animals or objects speak.
is a story about fairies and other magical people and events.
is a story in which frightening and often unnatural things happen.
is a book or play (film) that tells a very exciting story especially of crime and violence.
) Give your own definition for the following types of books: reference books, dictionaries, non-fiction books, biographies, westerns - are books about - (hobbies, crafts, plants, animals, facts about, another persons life, American frontier of the 19th century, words of language with the information about)
d) .Answer the questions:
What books can help you to learn at school/ at the university?
What were your favourite childhood books?
Did you read anything during the holidays? What?
What do your family like reading? Why?
2. . Discuss in group.
Most teenagers have different opinions on reading (it is boring/annoying, it gives a headache, it takes too much time, it is easier to watch TV or video or to play computer games, reading is not important, books teach how to, it is the perfect way to - make fun, - entertain oneself, - relax,- spend free time, - not to be alone)
3. , , . ? Take a favourite book. What problems do the main characters have in it? Do you have any similar problems? Do you think books can help you solve these problems?
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: .. Some Items of Great Britain: . : , 1999.116. ISBN 5-87846-227-3.
: . 85-100 Some prominent writers of the English literature.
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: , , , , - WHO IS MADAME TUSSAUD?
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1. WHO IS MADAME TUSSAUD? .
Vocabulary
to move-
to make
wax models
entrepreneurial flair-
craft-
to sculpt
royal family
to be interested in -.
fame-
glamour-
to keep on top of all
to happen
to be obliged to-
under sentence of death-
victims
guillotine-
populous-
oppressor-
value-
to create-
to exhibit
evidence-
to look like-
to exhaust-
to decide-
to settle
to realize-
to fascinate-
innovator-
static- ,
to breath-
to advertise-
poster-
billboard-
retail company-
-Quite soon afterwards she moved to Paris where she learnt her art of making wax models.
Her entrepreneurial flair was the product that she crafted and sculpted and it was the very best that there was. / Kieran Lancini Archivist and External Relations Executive/
-Very popular were the royal family of France at the time, Louis XVI and the young Marie Antoinette.
Madam Tussaud was interested in fame; she was interested in glamour, in sensationalism.
/ Ben Lovett PR Manager, Madame Tussaud, London/
-She liked to keep on top of all these things. For example, in her day she had an area where you could actually see the Royal Family sitting down to diner, where else would that happen?
When the French Revolution came she was obliged under sentence of death herself to make models of the victims of the guillotine. Those models were then put on pikes and takes to the Place de la Concorde* and there the populous could see that the evil oppressor had been brought to his end.
The values that we have today that are the same that Madame Tussaud created all those years ago, that is listening to what our guests are asking us to create in terms of figures.
She realized that she had a product people were fascinated by, humans love to look at humans.
In 1802, Madame Tussaud decided to make a new life and go to England to make a new life and go to England. She set up a travelling wax work museum and she was on the road for 36 years of intensive hard work.
At one time, on the way to giving her exhibition in Ireland she was shipwrecked off the west coast of England and had to swim ashore, losing quite a lot of her objects and figures.
- She was mostly travelling, so she would have to set something up every time or she would have had to find a room in wherever it was she was exhibiting. She would have been working in considerably more primitive conditions I guess; the lighting wouldnt have been as good.
/ Stephen Mansfield, principle Sculptor, Ts Studios/
-There werent cameras; there wasnt any type of photographic evidence of what people look like. Madame Tussaud would have used contemporary busts or paintings for her reference.
I think that her traveling exhibition was certainly very exhausting and profitable.
Eventually it was decided with her children, Madame Tussaud and Sons Ltd., that she would settle in the Portman Rooms until the famous site in Baker Street was purchased and a purpose built exhibition was erected on that site which is there to this day.
Madame Tussaud was actually quite an innovator, her models werent just static. Fairly recently we did a model of Britney Spears here which had a breathing chest and there was a lot of press coverage about it, but hundreds of years ago Madame Tussaud had a figure that breathed the same way ours does. / Stephen Mansfield, principle Sculptor, Ts Studios/
-Madame Tussaud was very, very good at advertising. She would circulate personally thousands of posters and billboards around the areas where her attraction was at that time. She would use omnibuses and public transport and theyd use the sort of language that big retail companies use today.
Madame Tussaud was an amazing business woman, mother, entrepreneur: she had incredible bravery and vision and if ever there was a story for a Hollywood movie it should be Madame Tussaud.
/ Ben Lovett PR Manager, Madame Tussaud, London/
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| He asked me, " Whohas come?" - : ? | He asked me whohad come. - , . |
| He asked, " Whendid you see him?" : ? | He asked when I had seen him. , . |
| He asked me, " Whyhave you come so late?" - : ? | He asked me why I had come so late. - , . |
| I asked, " How long will it take you to get there?" : , ? | I asked him how long it would take him to get there. , , . |
| He asked me, " Wherewere you yesterday?" - : ? | He asked me where I had been the day before. - , . |
| He asked me, "Where do they live?" - : ? | He asked me where I lived. - , . |
| He asked me, "Who showed you my work?" - : ? | He asked me who had shown me his work. - , . |
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| He asked me, "What is the price of this car?" - : ? | He asked me what was the price of this car. = He asked me what the price of this car was. - , . |
2 , if whether, . .
| " Do you know the boy?" I asked him. ? . | I asked him if he knew the boy. , . |
| He asked, " Have you met my wife?" : ? | He asked if (whether) I had met his wife. , . |
| He asked me, " Will you be here tomorrow?" - : ? | He asked me whether (if) I should ( would) be there the next day. - , . |
| He asked me, "Have you received our invoice?" - : ? | He asked me whether (if) I had received their invoice. - , . |
| She said, "Have you read the morning paper?" - : ? | She asked whether (if) I read the morning paper. - , . |
| I asked, "Do you understand now?" - : ? | I asked him if he understood now. - , () . |
: if if . if , if :
| I shall ask him if he will come. | , . |
| I shall ask him about it if he comes. | , . |
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| "Do you speak English?" -? | |
| "Yes, I do. No, I don't. " - . . | I answered that I did. - , . I answered that I didn't. - , . |
that, yes no .
| I asked him, "Will you go there?" - He answered, "Yes, I will. (No, I wont.)" - : ? - : , (, ). | I asked him whether he would go there. - He answered that he would (he wouldnt). - , . - , ( ). |
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| He answered in the negative. | . |
, : to ask , to beg , , to implore , : to tell , , , to order , to allow .
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| He said, " Stop the car." : . | He told me to stop the car. . |
| She said to him, " Come at five o'clock." - : . | She told him to come at five o'clock. - . |
| She said to me, " Open the window, please." - : , , . | She asked me to open window. - . |
| I said to her, "Please bring me a glass of water." - : , . | I asked her to bring me a glass of water. - . |
| She said to the boy, "Wait for me here." - : . | She told the boy to wait for her there. - . |
| The commander said to the sentry, "Take the prisoner away." - : . | The commander ordered sentry to take the prisoner away. - . |
not.
| He said to me, " Don't go there." - : . | He told me not to go there. - . = . |
| She said to me, "Don't open the window, please." - : , , . | She asked me not open the window. - . |
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| She said to him, "Close the door." - : " ". | She told him to close the door. - . = , . |
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| I asked him to send off the letter. | . |
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