Phraseology is a branch of lexicology studying phraseological units (set expressions, praseologisms, or idioms (in foreign linguistics). Phraseological units differ from free word-groups semantically and structurally: 1) they convey a single concept and their meaning is idiomatic, i.e. it is not a mere total of the meanings of their components 2) they are characterized by structural invariability (no word can be substituted for any component of a phraseological unit without destroying its sense (to have a bee in ones bonnet (not cap or hat). 3) they are not created in speech but used as ready-made units. Unlike a word, a phraseological unit can be divided into separately structured elements and transformed syntactically (On the instant he was thinking how natural and unaffected her manner was now that the ice between them had been broken. (Th. Dreiser, An American Tragedy). I... found this man in a kind of seizure, and went for help. This broke the ice between us, and we grew quite chatty, without either of us knowing the other's name. (H. Pollitt, Serving My Time).
Phraseological units are classified in accordance with several criteria.
In the classification proposed by acad. Vinogradov phraseological units are classified according to the semantic principle, and namely to the degree of motivation of meaning, i.e. the relationship between the meaning of the whole unit and the meaning of its components. Three groups are distinguished: phraseological fusions (), phraseological unities (), phraseological combinations ().
1. Phraseological fusions are non-motivated. The meaning of the whole is not deduced from the meanings of the components: to kiss the hares foot (), to kick the bucket ( ), the kings picture ( )
2. Phraseological unities are motivated through the image expressed in the whole construction, the metaphores on which they are based are transparent: to turn over a new leaf, to dance on a tight rope.
3. Phraseological combinations are motivated; one of their components is used in its direct meaning while the other can be used figuratively: bosom friend, to get in touch with.
^ Prof. Smirnitsky classifies phraseological units according to the functional principle. Two groups are distinguished: phraseological units and idioms.
Phraseological units are neutral, non-metaphorical when compared to idioms: get up, fall asleep, to take to drinking. Idioms are metaphoric, stylistically coloured: to take the bull by the horns, to beat about the bush, to bark up the wrong tree.
Structurally prof. Smirnitsky distinguishes one-summit (one-member) and many-summit (two-member, three-member, etc.) phraseological units, depending on the number of notional words: against the grain ( ), to carry the day ( ), to have all ones eggs in one basket.
Prof. Amosova classifies phraseological units according to the type of context. Phraseological units are marked by fixed (permanent) context, which cant be changed: French leave (but not Spanish or Russian). Two groups are singled out: phrasemes and idioms.
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1. Prasemes consist of two components one of which is praseologically bound, the second serves as the determining context: green eye ( ), green hand ( ), green years ( ), green wound ( ), etc.
2. Idioms are characterized by idiomaticity: their meaning is created by the whole group and is not a mere combination of the meanings of its components: red tape ( ), mares nest (), to pin ones heart on ones sleeve ( ).
^ Prof. Koonins classification is based on the function of the phraseological unit in communication. Phraseological units are classified into: nominative, nominative-communicative, interjectional, communicative.
1. Nominative phraseological units are units denoting objects, phenomena, actions, states, qualities. They can be:
a) substantive a snake in the grass ( ), a bitter pill to swallow;
b) adjectival long in the tooth ();
c) adverbial out of a blue sky, as quick as a flash;
d) prepositional with an eye to ( ), at the head of.
2. Nominative-communicative units contain a verb: to dance on a volcano, to set the Thames on fire ( - ), to know which side one's bread is buttered, to make (someone) turn (over) in his grave, to put the hat on smbs misery ( ).
3. Interjectional phraseological units express the speakers emotions and attitude to things: ^ A pretty kettle of fish! ( ), Good God! God damn it! Like hell!
4. Communicative phraseological units are represented by provebs (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening; Never say never) and sayings. Sayings, unlike provebs, are not evaluative and didactic: ^ Thats another pair of shoes! Its a small world.
Some linguists (N.N. Amosova, J. Casares) dont include proverbs and sayings into their classifications. Others (I.V. Arnold, A.V. Koonin, V.V. Vinogradov) do, on the grounds that 1) like in phraseological units their components are never changed 2) phraseological units are often formed on the basis of proverbs and sayings (A drowning man will clutch at a straw → to clutch at a straw).
In dictionaries of idioms the traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units the thematic principle is used.
^ The etymological classification of phraseological units
According to their origin phraseological units are divided into native and borrowed.
Native phraseological units are connected with British realia, traditions, history:
By bell book and candle (jocular) . This unit originates from the text of the form of excommunication ( ) which ends with the following words: ^ Doe to the book, quench the candle, ring the book!
To carry coal to Newcastle (parallells: , , )
According to Cocker , . E. Cocker is the author of a well-known book on arithmetics.
To native phraseological units also belong familiar quotations came from works of English literature. A lot of them were borrowed from works by Shakespeare: a fools paradise (Romeo and Juliet), the green-eyed monster (Othello), murder will out (Macbeth), etc.
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A great number of native phraseological units originate from professional terminologies or jargons: ones last card, the game is up/over lay one's cards on the table hold all the aces (terms of gambling).
Borrowed phraseological units come from several sources.
A number of units were borrowed from the Bible and were fully assimilated: to cast pearl before swine, the root of all evil, a woolf in sheeps clothing, to beat swords into plough-shares.
A great amount of units were taken from ancient mythology and literature: the apple of discord, the golden age, the thread of Ariadne, at the greek calends ( , ), etc, They are international in their character.
A lot of phraseologisms were borrowed from different languages lets return to our muttons (revenons à nos moutons), blood and iron ( Blut und Eisen), blue blood, to lose face (. tiu lien) and from the other variants of the English language (AmE) a green light, bark up the wrong tree, to look like a million dollars, time is money (B. Franklin Advice to a Young Tradesman).
