, . - .
, :
- , ;
- - ;
- ;
- ;
- .
, 1.1 1.2. . : R = 8,31 /() = 1,98 /() = 0,082()/().
:
(1.1)
1.4.
:
( ), (1.2)
Δ - :
, (1.3)
i ; j .
:
1. Δ = 0. ΔHT = ΔH0298.
2. Δc = const. Δc ( 1.4) ΔHT :
. (1.4)
3. .
, (1.5)
, (1.6)
. . ,b, c, c/ 1.4.
S0 ( 1.4) :
. (1.7)
:
. (1.8)
:
. (1.9)
. (1.10)
.
: DG < 0 ;
|
|
DG > 0 ;
DG = 0 .
1.1 n ()
, | ||||
- | ||||
1.2 (n - , )
Δ = Δ U+W=Q | Δ U=ncv(T2 T1) | |||
- | Δ = 0 | Δ U = 0 | ||
Δ = np(T2 T1) | Δ U= ncv(T2 T1) | |||
= 0 |
: [1], . 12 69; [2], . 8 49.
1.1 ( ) 5 10 196 .
: 1.2 ΔU = ncv(T2 T1). : T1 = p1V1 /nR, T2 = p2V2 /nR. Cv = 3/2nR.
DU = ncv (T2 T1) = 3/2nR (T2 T1) = 3/2(p2V2 p1V1) = 3/2(196×103)×(10 - 5)×10-3 = =1470 .
: DU = 1470 .
1.2 1000 , 298 : Df H (CH4) = -17,9 /, Df H (CO2) = -94,1 /, Df H (H2O()) = -57,8 /. ( -1-1) 298 1000 :
p (CH4) = 3,422 + 0,0178 × T; p (O2) = 6,095+ 0,0033 × T;
p (CO2) = 6,396 + 0,0102 × T; p (H2O()) = 7,188 + 0,0024 × T.
: :
CH4() + 2O2() CO2() + 2H2O()
.
, DH0298 Dc
.
.
:
DH298 = Df H (CO2) + 2∙ Df H (H2O()) Df H (CH4) = -94,1+ 2×(-57,8) (-17,9) = = -191,8 -1.
Dp = p (CO2) + 2∙ p (H2O()) p (CH4) 2∙ p (O2) = 6,396 + 0,0102× + 2×(7,188 + +0,0024× ) 3,422 0,0178× 2×(6,095 + 0,0033× ) = 5,16 0,0094× (-1-1).
: D1000 = -192,5 -1.
1 . .
2 . () .
3 , . , .
4 . .
5 . .
|
|
6 , , .
7 . .
8 . .
9 . .
10 . .
11 .
12 . .
13 . .
14 , , .
15 , 10 16 101,3 , 126 . .
16 , , 0,5 4 3 ( : 26,8 , 93,2 ).
17 , 25 100 , 5 . , , .
18 16 300 500 1 ? ?
19 , 1 , . , , . 40,6 /.
20 , 10 1 , 26,8 101,3 .
21 , 600 3 20 25 . , , . .
22 S() + O2() → SO2(), : 2S() + 3O2() → 2SO3(), Dr H = - 790 ,
2SO2() + O2() → SO3(), Dr H = - 196 .
23 C() → C(), :
C() + O2() → CO2(), Dr H = - 396,3 ,
C() + O2() → CO2(), Dr H = - 398,2 .
24 S() → S(), :
S() + O2() → SO2(), Dr H = - 296,96 ,
S() + O2() → SO2(), Dr H = - 396,65 .
25 C2H4 :
C2H4() +3O2() → 2CO2() + 2H2O(), Dr H = - 1323
C() + O2() → CO2(), Dr H = - 393,5 ,
H2() + 1/2O2() → H2O(), Dr H = - 241,8 .
26 CH3OCH3() → CH3CH2OH(),
CH3OCH3() + 3O2() → 2CO2() + 3H2O(), Dr H = - 1454 ,
CH3CH2OH() + 3O2() → 2CO2() + 3H2O(), Dr H = - 1402 .
27 Na2CO3() → Na2O() + CO2(),
Na2CO3() + SiO2() → Na2SiO3() + CO2(), Dr H = 81,04 ,
Na2O() + SiO2() → Na2SiO3(), Dr H = - 243,17 .
28 500 , 298 146,2 /×.
29 11,2 0 50 1 0,01 .
30 100 1 0,5 0 1 . , 1 .
|
|
31 (v = 3 /×), 350 5 , 1 . , , , , .
32 0,4 NaCl 20 850 . : p (NaCl()) = 45,94 + 16,32×10-3×T (/×),
p (NaCl()) = 66,53 /×. 800 , 31 /.
33 5 80 10 20 . 4,184 /×.
34 200 , 0 , 200 (90 ) . 6 /. 4,184 /×.
35 80 . , 1.3:
1 ;
2 D :
) D = 0;
) D = const;
) D = f ().
3 DS ;
4 DG .
1.4
1.3
/ | , | |
2H2() + CO() = CH3OH() | ||
4HCl() + O2() = 2H2O() + 2Cl2() | ||
NH4Cl() = NH3() + HCl() | ||
2N2() + 6H2O() = 4NH3() + 3O2() | ||
4NO() + 6H2O() = 4NH3() + 5O2() | ||
2NO2() = 2NO() + O2() | ||
N2O4() = 2NO2() | ||
Mg(OH)2() = MgO() + H2O() | ||
CaCO3() = CaO() + CO2() | ||
Ca(OH)2() = CaO() + H2O() | ||
() + 22() = SO2() + 2H2() | ||
() + 22() = SO2() + 2CO() | ||
2SO2() + O2() = 2SO3() | ||
SO2() + Cl2() = SO2Cl2() | ||
CO() + 3H2() = CH4() + H2O() | ||
2CO() + SO2() = () + 22() | ||
CO() + Cl2() = COCl2() | ||
CO2() + H2() = CO() + H2O() | ||
CH4 + CO2 = 2CO + 2H2 | ||
CO + H2O = CO2 + H2 | ||
CH3OH + NH3 = CH3NH2 + H2O | ||
H2 + O2 = 2H2O | ||
C6H6 + 3H2 = C6H12 | ||
C2H6 = C2H4 + H2 | ||
C2H5OH = CH3COH + H2 | ||
C2H4() + H2O() = C2H5OH() | ||
C2H5OH = C2H4 + H2O | ||
C4H8 = C2H4 | ||
CH3OH + CO = CH3COOH | ||
2NO = N2 + O2 | ||
C4H10 = C4H8 + H2 | ||
2H2S = 2H2 + S2() | ||
FeO() + H2 = Fe() + H2O() | ||
Fe3O4() + H2 = 3FeO() + H2O() | ||
N2 +C2H2 = 2HCN | ||
CH4 + H2O() = CO + 3H2 | ||
CCl4() + 2H2O() = CO2 +3H2 | ||
C() + CO2 = 2CO | ||
HCOOH() = CO2 +H2 | ||
Fe2O3() +O = 2FeO() + CO2 | ||
CO + H2 = C() + H2O() | ||
2NO + O2 = 2NO2 | ||
2CO + O2 = 2CO2 | ||
2H2S + 3O2 = 2H2O() +2SO2 | ||
2ZnS() + 3O2 = 2ZnO() + 2 SO2 | ||
4NH3() + 3O2 = 2N2 + 6H2O() |
|
|
1.4
D0 | S0, | = + bT + + 2, | , | ||||
b ∙ 10-3 | c ∙ 10-6 | c' ∙ 105 | |||||
H2() | 130,7 | 27,3 | 3,27 | - | 0,5 | 28,85 | |
O2 () | 205,2 | 31,46 | 3,39 | - | -3,77 | 29,37 | |
N2 () | 191,5 | 27,87 | 4,27 | - | - | 29,14 | |
Cl2 () | 223,1 | 36,9 | 1,05 | - | -2,52 | 33,96 | |
H2O () | -242,0 | 188,9 | 30,02 | 10,72 | - | 0,33 | 33,6 |
CO() | -110,6 | 197,7 | 28,43 | 4,1 | - | -0,46 | 29,13 |
CO2 () | -393,51 | 213,8 | 44,17 | 9,04 | - | -8,54 | 37,14 |
NO () | 90,3 | 210,7 | 29,58 | 3,85 | - | -0,58 | 29,89 |
NO2 () | 33,89 | 240,3 | 42,16 | 8,54 | - | -6,74 | 37,11 |
N2O4 () | 9,37 | 304,0 | 83,89 | 39,75 | - | -14,90 | 78,99 |
NH3 () | -46,19 | 192,5 | 29,80 | 25,48 | - | -1,67 | 35,65 |
HCl () | -92,4 | 186,9 | 26,54 | 4,61 | - | 1,09 | 29,15 |
CH4 () | -74,9 | 186,4 | 17,46 | 60,5 | 1,118 | - | 35,63 |
22() | 226,75 | 200,82 | 26,44 | 66,65 | -26,48 | - | 43,93 |
2H4 () | 52,28 | 219,4 | 4,19 | 154,59 | -81,09 | - | 43,63 |
C2H6 () | -84,67 | 229,7 | 4,494 | 182,26 | -74,86 | - | 52,71 |
48() 1- | -0,13 | 305,60 | 21,47 | 258,40 | -80,84 | - | 85,65 |
410() | -126,15 | 310,12 | 18,23 | 303,56 | -92,65 | - | 97,45 |
C6H6 () | 82,93 | 269,2 | -33,90 | 471,87 | -298,34 | - | 81,67 |
C6H12 () | -123,2 | 298,4 | -51,75 | 598,87 | -230,0 | - | 106,34 |
CH3OH () | -202,1 | 239,9 | 15,29 | 105,27 | -31,07 | - | 44,00 |
CH3CHO () | -166,0 | 264,2 | 13,02 | 153,51 | -53,72 | - | 54,64 |
33() | -217,57 | 294,93 | 14,82 | 196,70 | -77,70 | - | 74,90 |
C2H5OH () | -235,3 | 282,0 | 19,09 | 212,86 | -108,69 | - | 73,6 |
CCl4() | -100,42 | 310,12 | 59,36 | 97,00 | -49,57 | - | 83,76 |
NH4Cl () | -315,4 | 94,56 | 49,37 | 133,89 | - | - | 84,20 |
Mg(OH)2() | -924,66 | 63,2 | 54,56 | 66,15 | - | - | 76,99 |
MgO () | -601,24 | 26,94 | 42,59 | 7,28 | - | -6,20 | 37,41 |
CaCO3 () | -1207,9 | 92,9 | 104,5 | 21,92 | - | -25,94 | 81,85 |
CaO () | -635,5 | 39,8 | 49,65 | 4,52 | - | -6,95 | 42,83 |
Ca(OH)2 () | -986,8 | 83,4 | 105,27 | 11,953 | - | -18,979 | 87,55 |
S2 () | 129,1 | 228,2 | 36,11 | 1,09 | - | -3,52 | 32,49 |
SO2 () | -296,9 | 248,2 | 42,55 | 12,55 | - | -5,65 | 39,90 |
SO3 () | -395,2 | 256,23 | 57,36 | 26,88 | - | -13,06 | 50,70 |
SO2Cl2 () | -358,7 | 311,3 | 53,72 | 79,50 | - | - | 77,4 |
COCl2 () | -223,0 | 289,2 | 67,16 | 12,11 | - | -9,03 | 60,67 |
. , : . , , .
. :
mA + nB ↔ pC +qD
:
(2.1)
(2.1) : . .
, Kp.
Kc Kp , :
, (2.2.)
Δn .
-: , , ( , ), , .
Δr G0 :
. (2.3)
ΔrG ΔrF ( ) pi ci ( -):
. (2.4)
Kp, , Kp, , , .
|
|
( -)
(2.5)
( -)
(2.6)
(2.5) (2.6) ΔH = const ( ΔU = const), :
.
K1, K2 T1, T2, :
, (2.7)
.
, , ΔrH . , ΔrH , .
: [1], . 79 87; [2], . 92 103.
2.1 :
A +2B ↔ C.
: [A] = 0,6 /; [B] = 1,2 /; [C] = 2,16 /. A B.
: (2.1)
, 1 2 1 . , 2,16 2,16 2,16∙2 = 4,32 .
, , .. ,
[A] = 0,6 ∙ 2,16 = 2,76 /,
[B] = 1,2 ∙4,32 = 5,52 /.
: [A] =2,76 /, [B] = 5,52 /.
2.2
N2() + 3H2() = 2NH3()
298 Kp = 6,0 ∙ 105, fH0 (NH3) = -46,1 /. 500 .
:
rH0 = fH0 (NH3) = -92,2 /.
(2.7),
2 = 0,18.
: 2 = 0,18.
: .
81 . . .
82 . , .
83 -. .
84 .
85 .
86 .
87
+ 2 = .
0.3 /, 0,5 /. 0,4. , 1,0 .
88 .
CO2 + H2 ↔ CO + H2O
850 . , 1 4 ?
89 3000 40%
2CO2 ↔ 2CO + O2.
Kp .
90
CO + H2O ↔ CO2 + H2
1000 :
H2 | H2O | CO | CO2 | |
ΔͰ (/) | ||||
ΔS (/∙) | 31,211 | 45,106 | 47,301 | 51,06 |
Δp = 1,72 /.
91 693 H2 + I2 = 2HI = 50,25. , 0,846 I2 0,0212 2.
92 693 H2 + I2 = 2HI = 50,25. , 2, I2 HI : ) 2,0; 5,0; 10,0 /; ) 1,5; 0,25; 5,0 /; ) 1,0; 1,99; 10,0 /.
93 SO2 + 1/2O2 = SO3 700 , 500 = 588,9 -1/2, 99,48 /.
94 2000 1 2 % . 2() = 2() + 1/22() .
95 () + 2() = 2() + 2() 500 = 5,5. , 1 5 2, . 2 .
96 N2O4() = 2NO2() 25 = 0,143. , 1 , 1 N2O4 .
97 3 , 1,79∙10-2 I2, 973 . 0,49 . , 973 I2() = 2I().
98 1 , 0,341 Cl5 0,233 N2, 250 . 29,33 . , 250 : l5() = l3() + l2().
99 2HI() = H2() + I2() = 1,83∙10-2 698,6 . HI 10 I2 0,2 H2 ? H2, I2 HI?
100 H2() + I2() = 2HI() 717 46,7. HI 1 HI .
101 CO() + H2O() = CO2() + H2() 800 4,12. , 20 % O 80 % 2 800 . , 1 .
102 1273 30 O2 () + () = = 2() 17 % ( ) 2. 2 20 ?
103 1 1 CH3COOH() + C2H5OH() = CH3COOC2H5() + H2O(). 1/3 , 1/3 , 2/3 2/3 . , : 1 , 1 1 .
104-123 . . , . : , .
2.1
/ | , | 1 | 2 | H 0, / | |
2 + 42= 25 + 2 | 7,0∙10-8 ( 1 = 400 ) | 8,4∙10-8 ( 2 = 500 ) | - | ||
2HgO() = 2Hg + 2 | 1,37∙1014 ( 1 = 693 ) | - | |||
Ag2CO3() =Ag2O() + CO2 | 3,98∙10-4 ( 1 = 350 ) | 1,86∙10-4 ( 2 = 450 ) | - | ||
23 = 24 + 22 | 1,9 ( 1 = 700 ) | 5,57 ( 2 = 1000 ) | - | ||
2C3H6 = C2H4 + C4H8 | 5,03∙10-2 ( 1 = 300 ) | 8,77∙10-2 ( 2 = 600 ) | - | ||
Hr(aq) + O2 = HrO2(aq) (Hr , ) | ( 1 = 273 ) | ( 2 = 298 ) | - | ||
3 = + 2 | 6,1∙10-4 ( 1 = 700 ) | 5,6∙10-4 ( 2 = 500 ) | - | ||
4HCl + O2 = 2H2O + Cl2 | 6,72∙10-4 ( 1 = 700 ) | 3,96∙10-6 ( 2 = 900 ) | - | ||
36 + 3/22 = 3 + | 9,1∙1015 ( 1 = 600 ) | - | 168,15 | ||
NH4Cl() = NH3 + HCl | 3,80∙107 ( 1 = 400 ) | 1,81∙1012 ( 2 = 500 ) | - | ||
+ 22 = 3 | 3,88∙10-11 ( 1 = 400 ) | - | 113,13 | ||
Mg(OH)2 () = MgO() + H2O | 7,26∙105 ( 1 = 350 ) | 5,59∙109 ( 2 = 500 ) | - | ||
2C5H11 + 2H2 = 2C4H10 +C2H6 | 1,46 ( 1 = 373 ) | - | 3,18 | ||
S2 + 4CO2 = 2SO2 + 4CO | 1,58∙1011 ( 1 = 850 ) | 3,39∙1011 ( 2 = 950 ) | - | ||
SO2 + Cl2 = SO2Cl2 | 8,51∙10-6 ( 1 = 350 ) | 2,27∙10-7 ( 2 = 450 ) | - | ||
C6H6 + 3H2 = C6H12 | 9,54∙10-6 ( 1 = 350 ) | 2,30∙10-6 ( 2 = 450 ) | - | ||
H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl | 3,25∙1011 ( 1 = 900 ) | 2,67∙1010 ( 2 = 1000 ) | - | ||
H2 + I2 = 2HI | 61,6 ( 1 = 633 ) | 41,7 ( 2 = 718 ) | - | ||
C6H5C2H5 + 3H2 = C6H11C2H5 | 5,98∙10-14 ( 1 = 485 ) | 9,30∙10-17 ( 2 = 565 ) | - | ||
I2 = 2I | 1,15∙102 ( 1 = 950 ) | 7,41∙102 ( 2 = 1050 ) | - |
, , , ,
, (3.1)
, , n , (p, T, c), , , , .
:
, (3.2)
- , ; - ; - ; - .
- - -:
. (3.3)
- ln =f(1/) , - . .
, -:
. (3.4)
. 89 , .
- :
. (3.5)
:
. (3.6)
:
, (3.7)
, (3.8)
, (3.9)
(3.10)
: [1], . 70 78, 88-112; [2], . 65 91.
3.1
CaCO3 ↔ CaO + CO2
: : CaCO3 CaO CO2. CaO CO2 CaCO3, 2.
(3.1) :
= +2 = 2-3+2 =1.
, , , .
124 . , , . .
125 . , , .
126 . .
127 . .
128 . .
129 . 1- .
130 . 2 . .
131 . . . .
132 . .
133 . .
134 43,09 /. 40 55,3 .. 50 ?
135 1029 0,01 .., 1154 - 0,1 .. ?
136 6,01 /, 41,09 /. ?
137 451 666, 484,5 - 2666 . , .
138 () TiCl4 ln p = 19,688 3335/. .
139 0,1013 273. 273 991,1 3/, 916,6 3/. 6010 /. , 271 .
140 (231,9 ) 6,980 /3 7,184 /3, . 1, 690 /. 500 . 118,7 /.
141 (5,5 ) 0,879/3 0, 891 /3. 10,59 /. 1000 .
142 (-38,87 ) 13,690 14,193 /3, . 2,33 /. 3000 .
143 34,7 200 49,9 400 . .
144 10 286,8 , 20 432,8 . .
145 24,1 400 , 28,7 /. , 500 .
146 2 133 -134,3 2660