Verbs are often followed by another verb.
I enjoy reading.
I didnt choose to do this job.
I dont want to go.
You deserve to get promotion.
She denies selling secrets.
He doesnt recall meeting him.
It can be difficult to know whether the second verb is a to-infinitive or ends with ing.
Verb + verb + ing
The ing form focuses on:
- `an action or state before the action of the first verb:
She admitted taking a bribe.
He misses seeing his wife and children
She finished doing her accounts yesterday.
- the activity itself. The second verb functions like a noun.
I dislike travelling.
S he recommended selling the shares now.
They have postponed launching the new model.
Some common verbs that are followed by ing forms:
Admit appreciate contemplate give up involve
Deny enjoy consider carry on mean
Look forward to mind justify cant stand remember anticipate resent detest recollect
Risk recommend delay miss
Jeopardize suggest put off avoid
Verb + TO + Infinitive
The to-infinitive form focuses on
- a purpose
She wishes to ask you a favor
She intends to complain.
They ve decided to go ahead with the idea.
- a future situation:
They are planning to launch a takeover bid.
I ve arranged to see the financial people tomorrow.
I expect to see them in Taiwan shortly.
Some common verbs that are followed by to-infinitive forms:
Intend attempt promise plan guarantee claim
Mean try undertake arrange offer pretend
Want hope forget seem fail
Wish expect remember appear neglect
Verb + Object + To-infinitive
When we talk about two actions performed by different people, the verbs are separated by an object:
He didnt wan t me to attend the meeting.
They do not allow you to smoke at work.
A laptop enables people to work on a plane.
Some common verbs used with an object and a to-infinitive clause:
Advise allow ask cause challenge choose defy enable encourage
Expect forbid force help inspire instruct intend invite lead leave
Mean oblige order pay permit persuade prefer programme recruit
Remind teach tell train trust urge use warn
Verb +Object + verb +-ing
Some verbs are used with an object and a second verb ending in ing:
Verbs used in this way may include:
Catch describe discover feel find hear imagine
Keep leave like listen to notice observe prevent(from)
Save see send set show watch
Her comment set me thinking.
Outsourcing would save you spending money on permanent staff.
The white knight prevented the company from being taken over.
Verbs of perception
Not all the action is seen or heard
I saw a man stealing some clothes from the store.
He watched the crowd leaving the stadium.
I heard a door banging repeatedly.
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All of the action is seen or heard
I saw a man steal some clothes from the store.
He watched a crowd leave the stadium.
I heard a door bang once and then nothing.
Verb + Infinitive without To
A few verbs used in second position do not take to. These are let, make and have (in the sense cause to happen)
We let them have a 10% discount.
Dont make me laugh.
Could you have Mrs. Smith bring in the coffee now?
Verb + It + Object Clause
When the object of a verb is a clause, t o-infinitive or ing-structure, we use it after the verb to introduce the clause:
I find it impossible to understand their culture.
The government regard it as unnecessary to harmonize taxation.
She feels it is necessary to send a copy to absolute everyone.
He found it worthwhile visiting the overseas subsidiaries.
Verb + For+To-infinitive
Some verbs are followed by the preposition for and it s object, then to-infinitive.
He arranged for his secretary to drive him to the airport.
I waited for him to get back in touch.
They called for the Union to reconsider its strike action.
These verbs can be used in this way:
Appeal, apply arrange ask call opt
Pay plead vote wait wish yearn
Verb + Possessive +verb +-ing
It is possible to introduce a possessive pronoun or a genitive between the first and the second verb. Thus Please forgive me for asking can be reformulated formally as Please forgive my asking. Other verbs that follow this pattern are:
That would entail our making a concession.
This will save our wasting time.
They have suggested his going to the symposium.
He s looking forward to our coming.
Special Cases
Certain verbs are followed by either an Infinitive or another verb + -ing but the choice leads to a change in the meaning.
I will never forget meeting Princess Diana. (I will always remember)
I sometimes forget to wear my badge(=fail to remember).
I mean to see her later this weak.(= I intend to).
I could get a better job but it would mean moving.(=involve)
He was an alcoholic but stopped drinking(=ceased).
He stopped to have a drink on his way home(= in order to).
She remembered to turn off her headlights.(=she didnt forget)
She remembers turning off her headlights (= she has a clear memory of this)
Why dont you try giving your staff greater autonomy? (= experiment and see what happens)
He tried to learn car maintenance but gave up(=attempted / made the effort).
PRACTICE
1. Match the sentence halves.
1. Im looking forward to a) signing anything like that
2. I dont remember b) talking for half an hour
3. Hes decided to give up c) increasing our debt-equity ratio
4. Borrowing any more money would involve d) smoking cigars for health
reason
5. She loves the sound of her voice and carried on e) seeing you in Milan soon.
2. Using the words in brackets, complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first.
a) Traveling doesnt bother me as long as there are no delays.(mind)
I dont..............................................................................................
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b) In my job I have to meet many people.(involve)
My job..............................................................................................
c) I certainly didnt pass on any trade secret.(deny)
I firmly).............................................................................................
d) Theres a danger we will lose business to our competitors.(risk)
We......................................................................................................
e)I think it would be a good idea to get in touch with the commercial attaché.(suggest)
She..........................................................................................................
f) We fully expect to double our turnover in the next two years.(anticipate)
We.........................................................................................................
g) He was late so I didnt see him.(miss)
He was late so.........................................................................
h) Why on earth did you spend so much on entertainment?(justify)
How can you..........................................................................
3. (Verb +to-infinitive)
Using the word in brackets, complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first.
1. I have every intention of complaining.(intend) I fully............
2. Send them the samples they requested dont forget, will you? Please..............
3. We will provide a 24 hour-a-day-hot line.(undertake) We...................
4. I anticipate receiving an answer soon.(expect) I........................
5. If you like we can send a replacement.(offered) They have..........
6. She should have told them of the potential problem.(neglected) She.....................
7. Im not sure, but I think theres a bug in the program.(appears). There...................
8. She says she has the necessary authority.(claims). She...........................................
4. (Verb+Object + to-infinitive)
The words in the following sentences are in the wrong word order. Rewrite them in the right order.
1. me she to in myself taught believe
2. dirty they me to their do work paid
3. he perform a certain programmed robot to number tasks the of
4. federation the rates cut Minister to interest urged employers
5. the from expertise to enabled joint benefit our us partners venture
5. (Verbs of perception)
There was a break-in at the headquarters of a company and the nightwatchman has made a statement to the police saying what he saw and heard.
Complete the statements using these verbs (have, go through, feel, beat, move, whisper, come, lie, shout).
I have worked as a night watchman here for six years and there has never been any trouble. But on the night in question at about 3 a.m. I was looking at the closest circuit TV screens in my room and saw someone...... about in one of the offices. So I took my torch and went to investigate. I decided not to take the lift because an intruder would hear it...... so I walked upstairs as quietly as I could. I stopped on the second floor and listened to my heart...... I took out the revolver and took off the safety catch. At that moment I imagined myself....... a gun battle and I couldnt prevent myself from..... afraid. I imagined myself........... in a pool of blood in the deserted building. Then I continued up to the third floor and walked down the corridor. I could hear two people............. to each other. I walked on and through an open door I observed two masked men........... the contents of the CEOs desk. Then after about 30 seconds but it seemed like an eternity I heard someone.......... something for a split second, then everything went blank.
6. Correct the errors in the sentences.
1. I find impossible to work with him.
2. They made us to work extremely hard in my previous job.
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3. She never let me to take any decisions.
4. Could you have MrClarke to prepare some statistics?
5. Shes finding difficult to get used to the climate.
6. I feel it necessary to delegate more of the work
7. (Verb+fot+to-infinitive)
Match the sentences halves in order to make logical sentences.
1. The opposition party has called for a)the company to increase
2. The conference organizer has arranged for its share capital
3. The production manager has been waiting for b)the spare parts to arrive
4. The shareholders voted for c)the prime minister to
resign.
5. His father paid for d)her to go to an American
University
e) the delegates to stay in a
four-star hotel.
8. Use the correct form of the verb in brackets to complete these extracts.
1. The German Chancellor intervened yesterday in a dispute with the energy industry over plans to stop.........(use) nuclear power.
2. In 1996 five big US networks donated airtime to political candidates for the first time but a survey of registered voters showed that most of them did not remember...........(see) the broadcasts.
3. Apparently, the commissioner meant...........(inform) the investigators of the secret payments into a special fund but was persuaded not to do so.
4. Embarrassment yesterday as the wife of the prime minister attended the presentation of a football trophy. Unfortunately someone forgot...........(tell) the photographers and the event had to be reprogrammed.
5. It could be that there is no crisis of faith in managers. It may simply be that suddenly everyone wants to be a management consultant or, failing that, an investment banker. In all those MBAs really do mean........(work) for McKinsey, Boston Consulting Group, Goldman Sachs and all the rest, good luck to them. But if they believe that being a consultant or investment banker will mean..........(have) a balanced life with plenty of time for family and friends, they may be in for a rude shock
UNIT VIII PASSIVES
1. Compare the following two sentences: Your little boy broke my kitchen window this morning.
That window was broken by your little boy.
In the first sentence the person who does the action (your little boy) is the subject, and comes first; then we say what he did (with the verbbroke) and what he did it to (the object my kitchen window). In the second sentence, the opposite happens: we start by talking about the window(the object of the first sentence has become the subject of the second sentence); then we say what was done to it, and who this was done by. The first kind of sentence, and the verb-form used in it are called active. The second kind of sentence and the form of the verb-form used are called passive.
2. The choice between active and passive constructions often depends on what has already been said, or on what listener already knows. We usually like to start sentences with what is already known, and to put new information later in the sentence. In the first example above the listener doesnt know about the broken window, so the speaker makes it the object in the sentence. In the second example, the listener knows about the window it is being pointed out to him, he can see it so the speaker uses the passive construction; in this way he can put the window first, and keep the new information (who broke it) for later in the sentence. Another example: John s just written a play. This play was probably written by Marlowe.
In the first sentence, John is somebody that the hearer knows; the news is that he has written a play. The speaker prefers to put this at the end, so he begins with John and uses an active verb. In the second sentence, a passive structure allows the speaker to begin with the play (which the hearer already knows about) and to put the news (who wrote it) at the end.
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3. We often prefer to use longer and heavier expressions at the end of a sentence, and this can be another reason for choosing a passive structure. Compare: Marys behavior annoyed me. I was annoyed by Mary wanting to tell everybody else what to do. The first sentence can easily be active or passive. But if the second sentence was active, the subject would be very long (Mary wanting to tell everybody else what to do annoyed me). In this case, a passive structure is more natural. Passive structures are also used when we want to talk about an action, but we are not interested in saying who did it. E.g. Those pyramids were built around 400 A.D.
Passives are very common in scientific writing, and other kinds of expression where we are most interested in events and processes: in things that happen. Active forms are more common in imaginative writing (novels, stories, etc.) and in other cases where we want to say a lot about the people who make things happen.
4. Note that meaning and grammar do not always go together. Not all active verbs have active meanings; not all passive verbs have passive meanings. If you say that somebody receives something, or suffers you really mean that he has something done to him. The verb form is active but the meaning is passive. Some English active verbs might be translated by passives in certain other languages (She is sitting); some English passives would not be translated by passives in some other languages (I was born....; English is spoken here).
5. A few active verbs can be used with passive meanings.
Your report reads well (= It is interesting to read your report)
The new Ford is selling badly.
This dress does up at the front.
Its a pretty material, but it doesnt wash.
Sometimes active and passive infinitives can be used with very similar meanings. E.g. Theres a lot of work to do/to be done.
After need, want, require active ing forms can be used with passive meaning. (My watch needs cleaning = to be cleaned).
When present participles (-ing forms) are used as adjectives, they usually have active meanings.(A crying child; the people taking part).
Past participles (broken, invited) normally have passive meanings but there are a few exceptions. E.g. a broken window but a retired general; the people invited but fallen rocks.
6. Not all verbs can have passive forms. Intransitives (like die, arrive) cannot become passive; they have no objects, and so there is nothing to become the subject of a passive sentence.
FORMS
Passive forms are made with the different tenses of to be followed by a past participle. The tenses, and the rules for their use, are the same as for the active forms. Note, however, that we avoid saying be being and been being so that future progressive and perfect progressive tenses are very uncommon.
Present Simple: English is spoken here
Present Progressive: Excuse the mess: the house is being painted.
Past Simple: I wasnt invited.
Past Progressive: I felt as if I was being watched.
Present Perfect: Has Mary been told?
Past perfect: I knew why I had been chosen.
Future Simple: You ll be told in advance.
Future Perfect: Everything will have been done by the 26th.
Going to structures: Who s going to be invited?
Modal structures: He ought to be asked.
Passive ing forms also exist: E.g. She likes being looked at. Having been rejected by everybody, he became a monk.
USES
- Focusing on action
We use a passive construction when we are not interested in who performs the action or it is not necessary to know:
The date was changed.
The missing file has been found.
He has been promoted to the post of Sales Director.
If we also want to mention who performs the action we can use a phrase beginning with by.
The decision was taken by the committee.
The missing file has been found by one of the cleaners.
- focusing on information
In a passive sentence, the grammatical subject receives the focus:
The visiting delegation was met by the president at the airport.
Here the visiting delegation, rather than the president, is in the centre of interest.
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- describing a process or procedure
We use the passive because we are more concerned with the process itself than who carries it out. For example, there is a description of the wine-making process:
Wine is made from the fermented juice of grapes. Grapes are picked at optimum sugar/acidity levels. After picking, the grapes are taken to the winery, de-stemmed and crushed in a variety of presses. The juice is then clarified by settling or by centrifuge, yeast and sugar are added and the wine is left to ferment in tanks. When fermentation is finished the wine is poured into a clean tank to stabilise. It can then be filtered and bottled and lef t to mature.
- writing in formal style
When writing in formal style (e.g. reports, minutes of meetings) we often choose an impersonal style by using the passive and beginning sentences with it.
It was agreed to increase the share capital.
It was considered to be an unacceptable alternative.
It has now been decided to postpone the proposed construction.
Another common way of reporting what is said or thought is to use it+passive+that-clause.
It was agreed that the share capital should be increased.
It was felt that some economies had to be made.
Other verbs used in this pattern include:
Announce, claim, discover, estimate, expect, know, mention, propose, recommend suggest, think, understand.
- reporting unconfirmed situation
when the statement is speculative we use the passive of say, think, consider, believe followed by an infinitive. This structure is common n newspaper reporting.
The minister is said to be in favor of decreasing corporation tax.
The board is thought to be in favor of a merger.
He is considered to be the best chairman the company has ever had.
The terrorists are believed to want a new ceasefire.
- verbs with two objects
Many verbs such as give, send, show, lend can be followed by two objects, which usually refer to a person or thing.
She gave her sister a car.
When these verbs are used in passive, there are two possibilities.
Her sister was given a car.
The car was given to her sister.
Most often in such cases the person becomes the subject of the passive voice.
I ve just been sent a whole lot of information.
You were lent ten thousand pounds last year.
We were shown all the different ways of making whisky.
Other verbs used like this are pay, promise, refuse, tell, offer.
- sentences with object complements
After some verbs the direct object can be followed by an object complement a noun or adjective which describes the object.
They elected him president.
We regarded him an expert.
I made the room beautiful.
These sentences can become passive.
He was elected president.
He was regarded to be an expert.
The room was made beautiful.
- sentences with clause objects
The object of a sentence can be a clause.
People believed that witches communicated with devil
N obody knew whether there was gold in the mine.
Passive sentences can be made with that or whether-clauses as subjects. It is usually used as an introductory subject.
It was believed that witches communicated with devil
It was not known whether there was gold left in the mine.
- verbs with object + infinitive
Many verbs can be followed by an object and infinitive.
She asked me to send a stamped addressed envelope.
Everybody wanted Doris to be the manager.
Verbs of asking, ordering, allowing can usually be used in the passive with a following infinitive.
I was asked to send a stamped addressed envelope.
She was told not to come back.
A few verbs are followed in the active by an object and an infinitive without to. Examples are hear, help, make, see. In the passive, the to-infinitive is used. Compare:
I saw him come out of the house.
He was seen to come out of the house.
They made him tell them everything.
He was made to tell everything.
- verbs which can not be used in passive
Not all verbs can have passive forms. Intransitive verbs can not be used in the passive: since they do not have objects, there is nothing to act as a subject of a passive verb. Some transitive verbs cannot be used in the passive at least in certain of their meanings. Most of these are stative verbs (verbs which refer to states, not to action, and which have no progressive forms). They are: fit, have, lack, resemble...... E.g. Your mother lacks tact. (we cant say tact is lacked....).
PRACTICE
1. Match the sentences halves appropriately.
1. Your enquiry a)has been confirmed
2. make sure that your mobile telephone b)has been credited to your account
3. All tenders and supporting documents c)has not yet been printed
4. Your hotel booking d)is switched off during important meetings
5. As requested, the sum of $75,000 e)must be returned by 31 March
6. The full conference programme f)is being dealt with
2. Make these sentences passive. Use by if it is necessary to say who did the action.
1. Karl Marx wrote The Capital.
2. They are repairing your car now.
3. Steve Jobs founded Apple Computers.
4. The board will discuss the proposal.
5. Did anyone inform Mrs. Wilson?
6. They make Renault cars in Slovenia.
7. They have transferred him to the New York office.
8. The princess opened the new conference center.
9. They had made a full investigation.
10. I didnt realize someone was listening to my telephone conversation.
11. Previous climbers had cut steps in the ice.
12. We use this room only on special occasions.
13. Someone switched on a light and opened the door.
14. The police asked each of us about the movements on the night of crime.
15. Someone will serve refreshments.
16. Someone has already told him to report for duty at six.
17. They rang the church bells as a flood warning.
18. No one can do anything unless someone gives us more information.
19. People are spending far more money on food now than they spent ten years ago.
20. The organizers will exhibit the paintings till the end of the month.
21. The judge gave him two weeks in which to pay the fine.
22. They make these artificial flowers of silk.
3. Make these sentences active.
1. This speed limit is to be introduced gradually.
2. The runways are being lengthened at all the main airports.
3. Byron is said to have lived on vinegar and potatoes.
4. This notice has been altered.
5. Evening dress will be worn.
6. The ship was put into quarantine and passengers and crew were forbidden to land.
7. Someone will have to be found to take her place.
8. He was made to surrender his passport.
9. The rumor must have been started by our opponents.
10. This scientific story has now been proved to be false.
11. The car which was blown over the cliff yesterday is to be salvaged today.
12. Why wasnt the car locked or put into a garage?
13. It is being said that too little money is being spent by the government on roads.
14. Your money could be put to good instead of being idle in the bank.
4. Read the following and rewrite the information, changing the focus as in the example.
DEALING WITH INFORMATION.
Written documents and messages land on your desk all the time and you need to process them efficiently. Here are a few tips.
- You should read through documents quickly and absorb their main information content.
- If you need to file a written document you can write the file name on the document
- If a written message requires action, you should make a note, for example on a Post-it.
- You should dispose of all messages once you have dealt with them.
5. Are these sentences true or false?
1. Passives are used when we are interested in who has done something rather than what is done.
2. Passives are used when the focus is on what is done rather than the people who perform the action.
3. The object of an active verb corresponds to the subject of a passive verb.
4. Passives are common in an informal style.
5. The passive is often used to describe the stages of a process.
6. Complete the advertisement, using either the active or passive as appropriate.
Communicados presentation skills training courses....(tailor) to each clients individual needs, so the main focus is on the type of presentations that......(give) by the participants in their everyday working lives. Courses..........(conduct) either on a one-to-one basis or in groups. They are highly participative and...........(design) to be enjoyable as well as instructive.
Communicado............(encourage) clients to...................(build) on their existing social communication skills. Through a number of interesting techniques we.......(show) clients how time can..............(save) in preparation, how body language can...............(use) to maximum effect and how visual aids can.............(create) for maximum impact.
For more details on how Communicado can.............(help) your company improve its business presentation call 0800 222 4567 now.
7. The following passage describes the production of paper. Put the words in brackets into the appropriate form, using the passive when necessary.
FROM TREES TO PULP
The trees...........(transport) to the paper mill by lorry, train or ship. First the bark.............(remove). This.............(burn) at a later stage so that energy can.............(generate) for the paper-making process. Then the logs............(cut) into chips and..................(cook) under high pressure for four hours to make paper pulp. Next the pulp..........(bleach) to...........(remove) dirt spots and..........(improve) its ageing properties.
FROM PULP TO PAPER
The manufacturing process also...........(require) chemicals to strengthen the paper. The fibers...........(mix) with additives and.........(dilute) with water. This mixture................(spray) onto the paper machine where it.............(press), then..............(dry) and.............(wind) onto one large reel which...........(weigh) up to 20 tons. Each part of the process........(control) by computers which automatically..........(correct) any errors.
UNIT IX MODAL VERBS
There is a group of auxiliary verbs which have a dictionary meaning. They are can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should, need. (Need can also be an ordinary non-auxiliary verb). These verbs are often called modal auxiliaries. They have several points in common which make them different from other verbs.
- modal verbs never show an action. They show only the attitude of a doer to an action.
I must read this book.
- they are not used (except sometimes in the negative) to talk about things that are definitely happening, or have definitely happened. Modal verbs are used when we say that we expect the things to happen, or that events are possible, or necessary, or improbable, or when we say that things did not happen, or that we are not sure whether they happened.
I cant swim.
She could be in London, or Paris, or Tokyo nobody knows.
I may come tomorrow if I have time.
You might have told me he was ill.
- modal verbs have no -s in the third person singular; questions and negatives are made without do; they are followed by the infinitive without to of other verbs (sometimes modal verbs are called defective ones).
You needn t look at me like that.
He must be here at nine oclock.
- modal verbs have no infinitives, and other expressions are used instead, when necessary.
Id like to be able to skate.
Youre going to have to work harder.
- modal verbs have no past forms. Could and would are used with past meanings in some cases.
- modal verbs can be used with perfect infinitives to talk about things which did not happen, or which we are not sure about, in the past.
You should have told me at once.
Her car may have been broken down.
Some modal verbs have weak pronunciations, Shall, will, would and should have contracted forms, and all modal verbs can have contracted negative forms.
We ll see you tomorrow evening.
I d keep quiet if I were you.
You cant help liking her.
It wont make much difference if were late.
Each modal verb has at least two meanings. One use of all modal verbs is to talk about the possibility or probability of a situation or event. Some of these verbs are used to say that a situation is certain; others that it is probable or possible; others that it is impossible.
Certainty
Verbs used: shall, shant, will, wont, must, cant, couldnt, wouldnt, would.
I ll see you tomorrow.
I shant be late.
It won t rain this evening.
I told you wouldnt be able to do it.
Ability
- saying that someone knows how to do something:
We use can to say that someone is able/not able to do something.
Our new divisional manager can speak four languages fluently.
He cant drive, hes never learnt how to do it.
We also use can to say that machines are able to perform certain tasks:
The new photocopier can print out a whole book in less than five minutes.
- talking of a past ability
He could play the piano when he was five years old.
This sentence refers to an ability that was not limited to just one occasion. If we want to speak of one event we use managed to or was able to.
After six hours of negotiation, we finally managed to make some progress.
After some hours of negotiation, we were finally able to make some progress.
The negative form is, however, possible for just one occasion:
We couldnt get tickets for the opera they were all sold out.
- indicating disapproval when something is or was not done
She could make more of an effort. (=she is able to, but doesnt)
You could have told me beforehand I needed to know. (= you were able to, but didnt).
Obligation, prohibition
- saying what is compulsory
We use must or has/have to to indicate what is compulsory in the present and future:
Any change in taxation must be fair, fiscally responsible and must avoid simply shifting the burden from the rich to the middle class.
All travelers to China have to be in possession of a visa.
must can also be used in reported speech:
The London Chamber of Commerce and Industry said the government must act to tackle the capitals traffic problems.
If something was necessary or obligatory in the past we use had to and we use will have to for the future.
When we lived in Sao Paulo we had to learn some Portuguese.
We will have to evaluate the new procedure regularly.
The absence of future obligation is expressed by will not/wont have to.
If we open a bank account in the Bahamas we wont have to pay income tax.
- imposing an obligation on ourselves
We prefer to use must when we oblige ourselves to do something. We prefer have to when the obligation is imposed by other people or external circumstances.
I must remember to get in touch with Mr.Gonzales, I keep forgetting.
I must buy my wife a present before I go home.
We have to wear a uniform at work, its not our choice.
I enjoy going to conferences unless I have to make a presentation.
- freedom to choose
If you do not have to do something, there is no obligation if you are free to act.
I can work from home so I dont have to go into the office very often.
- saying that something is prohibited
We use must not to say that something is forbidden or very unacceptable.
Passengers must not smoke during take off.
You mustnt enter a joint-venture unless both parties benefit from the deal.
cannot and may not are also used if something is forbidden because of a rule or a law.
Retailers cannot/may not sell below cost price in some countries.
Possibility
- expressing possibility
We use can to say that something is possible and cannot/could not to say that something is impossible.
Mathematics can be really interesting.
Protectionisms cant b e the final answer to a countrys economic problems.
If a situation is possible but it is not certain that it will happen or be possible, we use could.
A lot of accidents at work could be avoided.
If we outsourced more we could save a lot of money.
- saying something was possible in the past
We use either could or used to be able to:
Twenty years ago you could walk in the fields but theyve all been built on now.
You used to be able to put coins in telephone boxes but not now.
We use could/couldnt if something was impossible:
Twenty years ago you couldnt buy a computer as cheaply as you can now.
= Twenty years ago you didnt use to be able to buy a computer............
- talking about past opportunities
A past opportunity which was not fulfilled is expressed using could have and a past participle:
She could have gone to Harvard but she went to Yale instead.
He could have been a Member of Parliament but he preferred to stay out of politics.
Likelihood
A number of modal verbs are used to express degrees of certainty, according to the speakers perception of the situation.
- 100% certain
The 21st century will be very different from the preceding 1,000 years. (an obvious prediction)
Economics will never be a precise science. (a general truth).
- very certain (based on deduction)
You must be very tired after such a long flight.
That cant be Rowenas car shes driving to London today.
- probably
You may well have a point there.
Interest rates could well go up by a whole percentage point.
We s houl d arrive before lunch if theres not too much traffic.
- likely(based on speculation)
The decision this week by the Gulf Co-operation Council to allow national banks to set up branches in each others countries is a first step towards banking liberalization. It could also help efforts by banks to expand. The move could open up the large Saudi and Kuwaiti banking markets to other Gulf banks.
The firm may be forced to make a number of employees redundant in the coming months but the situation may improve in the longer term.
might suggests less certainty:
The president might survive the scandal but the chances look pretty slim.
- highly unlikely/impossible
You wont know Agnes shes our marketing person.
We cant meet such a short deadline.
