Bones become fragile in old age; there is a tendency for them to decalcify (osteomalacia) and in elderly women there can be actual loss of the bone itself (osteoporosis). Accordingly, it is important that their diet contains sufficient calcium and vitamin D (which allows the mineral to be maintained in the bones). The actual amounts of vitamin D required are very small. They are measured in micrograms (|tg): 1000 us = I mg.
Vitamin D is confined to fatty foods: dairy products, eggs and oily fish. About 2.5 mg of vitamin D daily would be an adequate amount for an elderly person.
holding and serving food.The Storeroom
Food being kept for service using the hotplate servery, hot trolleys or carving trolleys, must be held at a temperature of not less than 63C, as required by the Food Hygiene Regulations.
The hotplate servery counters may have infra-red heat lamps under which hot food can be placed to keep hot prior to service,
Green vegetables will deteriorate rapidly if kept in a hotplate for any length of time. It is better to cook them, refresh and reheat in small quantities as required. In this way it is possible to retain the colour, texture and some of the nutrients and vitamins. Other vegetables benefit from being cooked and served in this way.
Care must be taken when serving meat, fish and poultry dishes from the servery, so as not to break them up and spoil the presentation or dry them out.
The hotplate must always be kept spotlessly clean and the hot cupboards and bain-maries must be checked at regular intervals to ensure that the thermostats are maintaining the correct temperature of 63C. Any spillage must be wiped up immediately with dish cloths of the disposable type, or cotton cloths kept in a sterilizing agent. Small particles of food must not be allowed to collect on the counter. All service and portion control equipment, ladles, spoons, scoops and fish slices must be kept clean at all times and food must not be allowed to congeal on them.
Most catering establishments buy food in bulk from wholesalers because it is cheaper and more convenient. Large quantities can be purchased and are readily available if supplies fail to be delivered or estimated demand is greater than anticipated. The most important factor which governs the quantity of food purchased is the amount of suitable storage space available and the turn-over of certain items of stock. The stock purchased may represent thousands of pounds in cash, and if this stock were to deteriorate during storage it would mean a great loss of food and money. High quality food products are required if high standards of food preparation and presentation are to be achieved and maintained; therefore the correct methods of food storage must be kept to at all times.
Ideally, food stores should be situated on the north side of the building, since this ensures they will be as cool as possible. The general requirements for food storage areas are that they should be cool, dry, well-ventilated and, above all, vermin-proof.
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The main fixtures and fittings required are ample shelves for stacking packed goods, and metal storage containers. Large bins mounted on castors are used for bulk cereals and flour. The castors allow for ease of movement during cleaning operations. Cupboards with adjustable shelves are needed for the smaller items; also various airtight containers of a suitable material. A filling system is essential for the storekeeper to keep all records of invoices, credit notes, catalogues, price lists and books for recording goods received and goods returned and goods issued.
At the restaurant
When you book a table you're making a contract, a legally binding agreement, between you and the restaurant. If you don't turn up and you don't bother to let them know, they could sue you for compensation.
If you turn up on time and find that there's no room for you after you've booked a table, you can claim a reasonable sum to cover what you'd spent getting there. Be aware that some restaurants may have a dress code and you can be turned away if you don't conform. The management has the right to refuse to serve you but they mustn't discriminate or bar you solely on the grounds of racial or gender prejudice.
If your food is badly cooked e.g. a half-cooked, semi-frozen chicken portion, complain immediately. Restaurants and cafes must prepare food with reasonable care and skill. Allowing food to stand and go cold is one thing but failing to cook it adequately is far more serious. If you fall ill after eating a meal tell your local Environmental Health Officer who could investigate and prosecute if necessary under the food hygiene laws. You can also claim compensation from the restaurant if you can prove that your illness was due to their food. You'd be entitled to claim for the pain, suffering, loss of earnings (if you had to stay off work) and any other expenses that you'd been put to as a direct result of eating the meal.
If you find a foreign body in your food (like a slug in your lettuce), you can complain to the Manager and ask him to bring you another meal, or you can report it to your local Environmental Health Department. If you decide to make an official complaint, you'll probably need to hold on to the foreign body to produce it as evidence, so don't throw the object away or clean it up. Try to leave it as you found it and just wrap it up in a piece of serviette or tissue ready to hand over to the investigating officer.
If you're wearing an expensive jacket or coat and the restaurant doesn't have a proper cloakroom, then it's probably safer to keep it with you. If the restaurant offers to take it from you and put it into their cloakroom, they are obliged to take reasonable care of it. If it gets lost or stolen, you may be able to claim compensation. If you get food or drink spilled on you, you can claim the cost of having your clothes cleaned if it's the restaurant's fault. If what you're wearing can't be cleaned, then you can claim, but you're only entitled to the market value of your garment i.e. what it was worth at the time. You won't get the price of something brand new if yours was several years old.
Take- away and fast-food
Even if you are eating your main meals at the canteen you may feel the need after those late night study sessions to fix yourself a small snack. Most halls of residence will have an area where you can fix yourself something to eat and have a hot drink. Always check with your housing officer if these facilities are available even if the halls are not self-catering. The traditional late night snacks can consist of anything from toast to cheese/beans on toast to a jacket potato with fillings. The advances of microwave meals or just add hot water/ on the go snacks are also a popular choice with students.
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Ironically English students enjoy the great delights of other countries cuisine throughout the UK on a regular basis. For the International Student this will usually mean that there is always somewhere to go to enjoy some home comforts in the form of food. These are usually combined with part of an evening out. Fast food (Burgers, Kebabs, etc) and Take Away food (Chinese food/Indian) is so readily eaten by people through the country that they have become a natural part of the English cuisine. In a recent survey with young people throughout the UK, Curry was voted one of the most widely eaten dishes on a regular basis. Not only is this a reflection of the cosmopolitan and multi-cultural make-up of the UK, it is also a reflection of the fast pace of life of young people in Britain where work hard - play hard seems to be a way of life!
Whilst these are just a few examples of what students eat in the UK, when you come to study in this country it is entirely at your own discretion exactly what food you choose to consume. The local supermarkets usually provide quality food from around the world. Or if your budget is a little tight then why not try your local student shop. These usually sell a wide variety of food items at a discounted rate. If you have a strict diet due to medical, religious or personal reasons then you may be advised to choose to live in a self-catering halls or rented accommodation so that you can prepare your own food. However, if this does not appeal then speak to your International Officer about this or any other major concerns - theyd be happy to help!
STANDARDIZATION
Objectives of Standardization
Standardization is carried out for the following objectives:
Rise protection level of safety of life and health of citizens, properties of physical and legal entities, state and municipal properties, ecological safety, life and health of animals and plants and technical regulations;
Rise protection level of safety of subjects, taking into account a risk of possible natural and technogenic emergency situations;
Ensure scientific and technical progress;
Rise competitiveness of products (services), rational use of resources;
Technical and informative compatibility;
Collation (comparison) of examination and measurement results with technical, economic and statistical data;
Exchangeability of products.
Principles of Standardization
Standardization is carried out according to the following principles:
Voluntary use of standards; taking into consideration the legal interests of interested parties during elaborating standards.
Use of international standard as a base for elaborating national standard, except the cases when such use is recognized impossible due to inconformity to requirements of international standards, climate and geographical characteristics of country, technical and (or) technological features or other requirements; or country's refusal to adopt international standard or its certain provision by means of established procedures.
Inadmissibility of creation barriers for production and rotation, fulfillment of works and rendering services more than it is minimally necessary for achieving goals specified in article 11 of the present law;
Inadmissibility of imposing such standards that contradict technical regulations; Ensure conditions for use of standards unambiguously.
SO MANY STANDARDS TO FOLLOW, SO LITTLE PAY OFF
Companies have spent a lot of money to comply with ISO's popular management standards. Now, many wonder why they bothered.
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In 1904. electrical experts from around the world gathered in St. Louis. Noting that different countries had different names and units for electrical gear, they came up with the idea of creating an international industry standard so that machines made in one country could run on another country's power source. A century later, a Geneva-based group called the International Organization for Standardization, or ISO continues that work; over the years, it has established more than 15.000 standards for everything from screw threads and the dimensions of freight containers to the JPEG digital-photo format.
ISO has been moving into a new area: setting standards for nearly every aspect of a business's operations. At last count, in 2003, more than 600,000 companies worldwide had been certified to ISO's management standards. Moreover, many of the world's largest enterprises, such as Ford, Northrop Grumman, and some branches of the federal government, demand many of their suppliers to be certified.
And therein lies a problem for entrepreneurs. Getting an ISO certification is expensive and time-consuming. What's more, doing so requires codifying nearly every aspect of business operations something that runs counter to the style of a fast-moving entrepreneurial organization. But if you don't go through the process, you often can't work for the big guys.
ISO began setting management standards in 1987 beginning with a framework of rules known as ISO 9000, which governed the production-line operations of major manufacturers. In 2000, the organization broadened the rules to apply to service companies as well, covering everything from hiring to market research. In 1996 it introduced a set of environmental policies known as ISO 14000 and the organization is currently considering new standards for safety, corporate social responsibility, and financial planning. To qualify for either 9000 or 14000 certification, a company must write a specific, step-by-step guide for each process, and then demonstrate that it follows the procedure. Such management rules, says Alan Bryden, ISO's secretary-general, are "distillations of good management practice worldwide for the way an organization accomplishes its work."
But can something as ephemeral as good management be distilled, analyzed, and measured like a manufacturing process. When you try to make a simple parallel between blowing plastic bottles for detergent and running one-of-a-kind advertising campaigns, the ideas don't carry over in this nice, mechanistic way.
Certification also requires a lot of time and money, which can be especially hard on entrepreneurial companies. John Huey learned just how involved the process was when he directed the ISO certification for the division of Delaware North Companies that manages guest services in tourist spots like Yosemite and Sequoia national parks. First, Huey drafted an environmental-management policy. Then, he documented the company's environmental impact, tracking water use. energy use, and food recycling. Next, he devised a plan to reduce waste, researched legal requirements for pollution and contracts, trained employees, brought in a consultant to prepare for the compliance audit, and conducted his own preliminary audit. And still, there was more work to be done Huey shipped 300 pages of documents to a third-party auditor for a "desk audit" (ISO doesn't certify companies itself 750 or so independent firms handle that) and flew the auditor to each of the five sites he was certifying. The auditor spent a day or so in each spot, interviewing employees, reviewing Delaware North's adherence to ISO and noting any infractions. Two months later, Huey had to fly the auditor in again to confirm that the infractions had been corrected, re-interview staffers, and re-review documents. Finally, in summer 2001,18 months and about $115,000 after the process began, the sites were certified.
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What about the pay off? That's a tough one. The certification probably helped Delaware North win some contracts and certainly burnished its environmental standards. Employee morale also rose, as workers took pride in their newfound status as a certified environmentally friendly operation. But as for concrete financial rewards, there has been no spike in sales.
Whose experience is more typical? Three years ago, ISO's own journal, ISO Management Systems, published a study that tracked the effects of ISO 9000 certification on public companies over a 10-year period The authors concluded that firms that were certified tended to do better than firms that were not But they also wrote that certification "is more often a necessary condition to maintain current [financial] performance rather than a sure-fire way to improve performance." A 2002 study by the journal Total Quality Management was more pointed, finding that "ISO 9000 certification has a very limited impact on financial performance, as measured by return on assets; however, this effect dissipates quickly over time."
Nor does certification necessarily lead to a boost in quality. "There's a belief that ISO will bring a company to a standard level of performance, like a UL sticker on an electrical appliance," says Bill Robinson, who oversaw more than 50 ISO registrations at Lucent Technologies. "The problem is, it can help drive a company to a plateau level of performance, but it will keep it at that level and. in fact, stifle improvement."
Now Robinson oversees quality at EasyLink Services, a Piscataway, N.J., electronic-document company. And rather than going after ISO certifications, he prefers to work with Six Sigma, the quality system popularized by Jack Welch at General Electric. Arunas Chesonis, CEO of telecom company Paetec Communications, based in Rochester, N.Y., is also de-emphasizing ISO in favor of Six Sigma, in part because GE is both an investor and a customer. He began instituting ISO soon after starting Paetec in 1998. The standards, he says, were "a pretty powerful training tool" for new employees and signaled to potential customers "that we were the type of company that was focused on quality and process improvement." But now that his company is approaching $500 million in sales, Chesonis wants to layer Six Sigma on top of ISO. "ISO is really not one of the better systems for process improvement." he says.
QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A Quality Management System (QMS) is a system that outlines the policies and procedures necessary to improve and control the various processes that will ultimately lead to improved business performance. One of their purposes is quality control in manufacturing.
Although it may seem obvious that quality systems are necessary, many small or start-up companies function, or attempt to function, with only some areas covered. A survey performed in 1988 indicates the breadth of the systems established within the biopharmaceutical industry. The age of the company and the industry had some effect on the extensiveness of the quality function activities. It is clear that testing is the primary emphasis. This supports the observation that testing or QC is perceived, at least at the beginning, as the emphasis of the quality function.
In manufacturing industries, statistical process control is a vitally important methodology used to control quality.
Concept of Quality - A Historical Background
The concept of quality evolved from inspection, measurement, and testing, which had been in practice for many, many years Long ago, an artist or a sculptor took pride in his work and as a result always tried to excel in what was created. Mass production systems brought the concept of inspection by someone other than the craftsman in the first half of the 20th century.
Application of statistical control came later as a result of World War production methods. Quality Management Systems are the outgrowth of work done by W. Edwards Deming, a statistician, after whom the Deming Prize for quality is named.
Quality, as a profession and the managerial process associated with the quality function, was introduced during the second-half of the 20th century, and has evolved since then. No other profession has seen as many changes as the quality profession.
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The quality profession grew from simple control to engineering, to systems engineering. Quality control activities were predominant in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. The 1970s were an era of quality engineering and the 1990s saw quality systems as an emerging field. Like medicine, accounting, and engineering, quality has achieved status as a recognized profession.
Current Good Manufacturing Practice
According to Current Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) medical device manufacturers should use good judgment when developing their quality system and apply those sections of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Quality System (QS) Regulation that are applicable to their specific products and operations. Operating within this flexibility, it is the responsibility of each manufacturer to establish requirements for each type or family of devices that will result in devices that are safe and effective, and to establish methods and procedures to design, produce, and distribute devices that meet the quality system requirements.
FDA has identified in the QS regulation the essential elements that a quality system shall embody for design, production and distribution, without prescribing specific ways to establish these elements. Because the QS regulation covers a broad spectrum of devices and production processes, it allows some leeway in the details of quality system elements. It is left to manufacturers to determine the necessity for, or extent of, some quality elements and to develop and implement specific procedures tailored to their particular processes and devices. For example, if it is impossible to mix up labels at a manufacturer because there is only one label to each product, then there is no necessity for the manufacturer to comply with all of the GMP requirements under device labeling.
Quality Management Organizations and Awards
The International Organization for Standardizations ISO 9000 series describes standards for a QMS addressing the processes surrounding the design, development and delivery of a general product or service. Organizations can participate in a continuing certification process to demonstrate their compliance with the standard.
The Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award is a competition to identify and recognize top-quality U.S. companies. This model addresses a broadly based range of quality criteria, including commercial success and corporate leadership. Once an organization has won the award it has to wait several years before being eligible to apply again.
The European Foundation for Quality Managements EFQM Excellence Model supports an award scheme similar to the Malcom Baldrige Award for European companies.
The Alliance for Performance Excellence is a network of state, local, and international organizations that use the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award criteria and model at the grassroots level to improve the performance of local organizations and economies. NetworkforExcellence.org is the Alliance web site; browsers can find Alliance members in their state and get the latest news and events from the Baldrige community.
TYPES OF CEREALS
Barley
Barley grows in a wider variety of climatic conditions than any other cereal. It used to be a very important source of direct human food, but its use has diminished over the last 250 years, replaced by wheat, and it is now used almost exclusively as animal feed or for making beer and whisky. It contains gluten, so barley flour can be made into bread. More usually found in the shops as whole or pot barley, or polished pearl barley, it is also possible to buy barley flakes or kernels. The whole barley is more nutritious with 100g providing 10.5g protein, 2.1g fat, 69.3g carbohydrate, 4g fibre, 50mg folic acid, 6mg iron and 50mg calcium. It can be cooked on its own (1:3 parts water for 45-60 minutes) as a pleasant alternative to rice, pasta or potatoes, or added to stews. Malt extract is made from sprouted barley grains.
Buckwheat (gluten free)
Buckwheat is not a true cereal as it is not a member of the grass family, instead being related to sorrels and docks. If you look at docks closely, you can see that the seeds, though smaller, have the same distinctive triangular shape. Buckwheat, a native of central Asia, is now grown in Europe, N America and the former USSR countries, but it is still not widely used in Britain. 100g of buckwheat provides 11.7g protein, 3.9mg iron and it is very high in calcium with 114mg per 100g. Available raw the seeds are greenish-pink, or roasted (known as kasha) the seeds are darker reddish-brown. It can be cooked (1:2 parts water for 6 minutes, leave to stand for 6 minutes) and served like rice or you can add it to stews and casseroles. Buckwheat flour can be added to cakes, muffins, pancakes etc. where it imparts a distinctive flavour. Look out too for buckwheat spaghetti, soba.
Corn or Maize (gluten free)
Maize is the principal food plant of America and was unknown in other parts of the world until Columbus reached America in 1492. It was grown by the Maya, Inca and Aztec civilisations, and by various North American Indian tribes and now has spread to Canada, USSR, Italy, Spain, Egypt, India and South Africa. It is used for human food, animal feed and as a source of raw materials for industry. 100g maize gives 9g protein. Fresh maize is often available (sweet corn, corn on the cob) but remember that nutritional values will be lower because less concentrated. We most often see maize as cornflakes or popcorn, but cornmeal or polenta is available and can be added to soup, pancakes, muffins etc. Tortillas are made from maize meal, as are quite a lot of snack foods. Do not confuse cornmeal with highly refined corn starch/flour, used for thickening.
Millet (gluten free)
Millet is the name applied to a variety of grasses first cultivated in Asia or Africa. It is a staple crop in Africa because it is drought resistant and keeps well. 100g millet provides 9.9g protein, and 6.8mg iron (higher than other cereals). Millet makes a delicious alternative to rice but the tiny seeds need to be cracked before they will absorb water easily, so they should be first sauteed with a little vegetable oil for 2-3 minutes until some are seen to crack, then add water with care (1:3 parts), bring to the boil and simmer for 15-20 minutes until fluffy. Millet flakes can be made into porridge or added to muesli and millet flour is available, sometimes also made into pasta.
Oats
Oats are thought to have originated in Western Europe and may originally have appeared as a weed in barley and so got spread with the barley. They're now grown in many parts of the world including N W Europe, the former USSR countries, North America, Canada, Australia and China. Used mostly as animal feed, they are very nutritious. In fact, as they are usually inexpensive to buy, they can be a real boon to people trying to get a good diet on a low budget. 100g oats gives 13g protein, 55mg calcium (more than any other cereal except buckwheat), and 4.6mg iron. Available as groats (whole grains with the husks removed) but more usually as various grades of oatmeal, rolled oats or jumbo oat flakes. Oat groats need cooking for 45 minutes in 1:3 parts water. All forms can be used to make porridge, combined with ground nuts to make a roast or added to stews. Oatmeal is low in gluten so can't be used to make a loaf, but can be mixed with wheat flour to add flavour and texture to bread, muffins, pancakes etc.
Quinoa (gluten free)
Quinoa is an ancient crop which fed the Central American Aztec Indians for thousands of years, and which has recently been cultivated in Britain. Unlike most grains, it does not belong to the grass family, but is a relative of the garden weed called Fat Hen. It is very nutritious, containing between 13-14% protein with a good amino acid composition but has no gluten so it cannot be used for breadmaking. Instead, it is cooked for 15 minutes in 1:3 parts water and served as a side dish or may be used in risotto, pilaff, vegetable stuffings etc.
Rice (gluten-free)
Rice is one of the world's most important crops. It originated in Asia but is now grown throughout the humid, sub-tropical regions. It differs from most other cereals in requiring land that is submerged in water to grow, though some varieties do grow in upland areas. Rice is a good source of carbohydrate but doesn't have quite as much protein as some other cereals (6.5g per 100g). Unpolished rice (i.e. wholegrain/brown rice) is a good source of B vitamins too. There are three basic kinds in culinary terms: long, medium and short grain. Long used traditionally in savoury dishes, short in dessert cooking, although this varies across the globe and it is really a matter of personal preference. Long wholegrain rice needs to cook in 1:2 parts water for 35-40 minutes. Rice flour is available but because of the lack of gluten, it cannot be used to make a yeasted loaf but can be used for cakes, biscuits and pancakes. Rice flakes (brown and white) can be added to muesli or made into a milk pudding or porridge.
Wild Rice
Wild rice is not a rice at all but an American grass used as an important food by the Indians and early settlers. Difficulty in harvesting makes it expensive, but the colour, a purplish black and its subtly nutty flavour make it a good base for a special dish and it can be economically mixed with other rices, but may need pre-cooking as it takes 45-50 minutes to cook in 1:3 parts of water.
Rye
Rye is the least important cereal crop and is usually only grown where conditions are relatively unfavourable and other cereals don't do well. It probably originated in S W Asia, but the name occurs in Northern European languages, which suggest early cultivation in that area. It is very hardy and so grows in temperate and cool regions and at high altitudes, and is very tolerant of poor soil fertility. It is the only cereal apart from wheat and barley that has enough gluten to make a yeasted loaf, but it has less gluten than wheat, so rye bread is denser. It is more usual to mix rye flour with wheat flour. Rye grains should be cooked in 1:3 parts water for 45-60 minutes. Kibbled rye is often added to granary-type loaves. You can also add rye to stews and rye flakes are available, which can be used in muesli. 100g of rye gives 9.4g protein.
Spelt
Spelt is closely related to common wheat, originating in the Middle East, and has been popular for decades in Eastern Europe. Higher in protein than wheat, it appears to have a different molecular structure, appearing to cause less problems than wheat for some sufferers of grain allergies. It has an intense nutty, wheaty flavour. The flour is excellent for breadmaking and spelt pasta is becoming more widely available.
