-2010
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. 260900.65 - . . .: . 2000. 194 ./. 23.03.2000.
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2.1 __________________________________ | |
2.2 ________________________________ | |
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2.1 _________________________________________ | |
2.2 _______________________________________ | |
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3.1 ___________________________________________ 3.2 ___________________________ 3.3 ________________________________________ | |
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4.1 ___________________________ 4.1.1 ________ 4.1.2 ______ 4.2 , ___________________ 4.2.1 _____________________ 4.2.2 _____________________________________________ 4.2.3 ___________________________________________ 4.3 __________________________________ 4.3.1 - __________________________________ | |
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5.1 _________________________________ 5.2 ________________________ 5.2.1 _________________________________ 5.2.2 _________________________________________ 5.2.3 ______________________________________ 5.3 _______________________ 5.3.1 __________________________________ 5.3.2 ________________________________ 5.3.3 . ________ 5.4 ________________________________ 5.5 _________________________________________ | |
7. ___________________________________ 8. __________________________________________ |
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. , , , ..
. , . , . , . , .
, ( ), . . , . .
, , .
, , (). , 2046, 46, , , 46.
1
. , , . :
NaOH + HCl = NaCl +H2O.
1.1
. : N, Cl2, NH3, HCl.
: Al, K, S.
, . . , : 30, 65, (30) , (+30). : (+30) (65 30 = 35)
, . . : H2O, H2SO4, KOH.
, , . : K, H2, O2, O3, Ar, N2.
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, , . : CO, H2O, HCl, H2SO4, Na2 SO4, CH4, C2H5OH.
. :
CaCO3 + 2HCl = CaCl2 + CO2 +H2O.
. , , .
. , , 1,674 10-27 , 26,67 10-27 , -
19,9310-27 . , . 1/12 12.
(Ar) , 1/12 12. :
Ar(H) = m(H) / 1/12 m 12C = 1,674 10-27/ 1/12 × 19,9310-27 = 1,0079.
Ar(O) =
(Mr) , 1/12 12. , . : Mr(H2O):
2Ar(H) = 2 1,00797 = 2,01594
Ar(O) = 1 15,9994 = 15,9994
Mr(H2O) = 18,01534 Mr(H2O) = 18.
, H2O 1/12 12.
(, , .) . .
, (, , .), 0,012 12.
(19,93 10-27 ), N 0,012 :
N =
, .
() , .
= ,
m , ;
- , .
/ /.
, .
, 2,9910-26 , (H2O) = 2,9910-26 6,021023 / = 0,018 /.
.
: M(H2O) = 18 /; Mr(H2O) =18
M(H2SO4) = 98 /; Mr(H2SO4) = 98.
, , , (NA). : m(O) =
m(H2O) =
1. Br2, 12,8 .
.
Br2 :
(Br2) = 2(Br) = 280 = 160 /
Br2
2. 50,8 ?
.
(J2) = 2(J) = 2127 = 254 /
J2
(NA), (n) J2.
N(J2) = n(J2)×NA = 0,2×6,02×1023 = 1,2×1023 .
, () , .
.
(1/z B) /.,
1/z - ;
z - ;
.
n(1/z B) , ().
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(1/z ) , (/).
:
;
.
1.2
. , , , .
, 2 + l2 = 2HCl
, .
.
: 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
H2O: (ω(H)=1,11%; ω()=88,89%).
, , .. .
, 1/3Al + HCl = 1/3AlCl3 + 1/2H2 (1/3 Al) (1 HCl) (1/3 AlCl3) (1/2 2).
:
,
m(A) m(B) , ;
(1/z ) (1/z ) , /.
, :
,
Vo() ( ..), ;
V() , .
, Vo , .
3. , 7,20 28,20. 35,45 /.
. .
m(Cl) = m() m(Me) = 28,20 7,20 = 21,00
.
4. 1,8 (..) 833 3. .
. , V(2) = 11,2 /
M(1/zMe) = M(1/z ) M(1/z O) =24,2 8,0 = 16,2 /.
, . 273 (0), 101,3 (760 ...), , , . , , Vo, .
1 , 22,4 -1.
(Vm). (Vm) :
,
Vm (/);
Vo ();
n - ().
, , . :
m1: m2 = M1: M2,
m1 m2 , ;
M1 M2 , /.
( ) ( ).
= M1 = 2
( ), 2 /, ( ()), 29 /. , : = 2 = 29().
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5. 2,8. .
. ().
() = 29() = 29 × 2,8 = 81 /.
.
() = () () = 81 1 = 80 /.
, -, -.
HBr :
, :
,
P,V , ;
P, V, , .
6. 25 99,3 152 3. , .
. :
V = .
7. () 20 250 51 ?
. :
n(NH3) =
:
V0(NH3) = Vm × ν(NH3) = 22,4 × 3 = 67,2 ().
:
V(NH3) = .
1 , R. . , , 3, R = 8,31×-1×-1 (1=×3). ..., (), R = 62,36 ...××-1×-1. PV=RT ( ν=1 ).
n- :
PV=nRT PV= .
- ( .) (), (), () (3) (/). R=8,31 /×.
8. , 600 3 870 83,2 1,3 ×10-3 .
. -, :
= .
9. 20 . 0,4, 103,3 , 170. .
. .
() = 29 × () = 29×0,4 = 11,6 /
- .
m() =
. , , , .
, , .
( ).
, , , .
= 1 + 2 ++n,
1,2,n .
-.
10. 2 (. =93,3 ) 5 (. = 112 ). 7 . .
. , :
.
= (H2) + P(CH4) = 26,66 + 80 = 106,66 .
11. 0 14,0×10-3 3 0,8 ×10-3 6,3×10-3 . .
. - .
(H2) =
(N2) =
. = (2) + P(N2) = 64,80 + 36,46 = 101,26
, , . , 20 100 , 20 2,3 . , 100 2,3 = 97,7 . .
12. 250 3 26 98,7 . 26 3,4 . .
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. .
(2) = - (2) = 98,7 3,4 = 95,3 .
(..)
V0(H2) = 3
.
n(2) =
:
m(H2) = nM = 0,0096×2=0,019 .
13. , 30,43% 69,57% ( ). 46.
. .
M(NxOy) = = 2×46 =92 /.
.
m(N) =
m(O) =
14 : 16 = 28: 64
: y = x = 2; y = 4
N2O4.
1:
1 , 0,666×10-3 , 1,088×10-3 AgNO3. .
2 5 15 , 4,4 2, 6,4 2 2,4 4. , .
3 0,70 418 3 , 150 94,3 . 1,7 . .
4 , : 52% 4 48% 24.
5 0,612 0,168 (..) 0,372 . .
6 200 98500 8×10-3 3 . 200 2335 . (..) , .
7 0,327 130 1,040×105 0,838 . .
8 0,025 3, 5,066×105 . 200.
9 , , 28,4 2,0 200?
10 0,050 3 250 0,020 3 83950 0,015 3 95940 . .
11 5 , 95940 3 . 8 . 104200 . ?
12 0,6 3 00 , 0,20 2, 0,40 2 0,15 4. : ) ; ) .
13 , : 86% Ar 14% N2. , 39990 .
14 : 78,09 % N2, 20,95 % 2, 0,93% Ar 0,03% 2. , 101325 .
15 6 100 , 8,8 2, 3,2 2 1,2 4. , .
16 0,35 209 3 , 200 104,3 . 2,3 . .
17 1,225 0,336 (..) 0,745 . .
18 , 0,10 0,10 0,05 (..) 2,34.
19 , , , , 0,145 0,330 2 0,135 2. 29.
20 , 81,82% 18,18% , 1 (..) 2,6 ?
2
.
2.1
.. . .
, , .
n . 1 ∞: n = 1, 2, 3, , , .
ℓ . n 0 (n - 1): ℓ = 0, 1, 2(n - 1). , ℓ, 0, 1, 2, 3, s-, p-, d-, f-, - s-, p-, d-, f - . .
mℓ ℓ + ℓ, 0: mℓ = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3. mℓ .
1. -?
. - ℓ = 1. mℓ (+1, 0, -1), - - (px, py, pz) x, y, z.
ms +1/2 1/2 . , ms = +1/2, 1; ms = +1/2, - ms = -1/2, ( ). - , , ↓, ms = -1/2 ↑ - ms = +1/2.
, , . , ( ). .
2. ?
. n = 1. , ℓ = 0; mℓ = 0; ms +1/2 1/2. : n, ℓ, mℓ, ms. 1, 0, 0, +1/2 1, 0, 0, -1/2. , , .. .
z = 2n2, n , (n = 1, 2, 3 .).
z=2ּ(2ℓ+1), ℓ , (ℓ = 0, z = 2; ℓ = 1, z = 6; ℓ = 2, z = 10; ℓ = 3, z = 14).
() . , .
(n+ℓ).
(n+ℓ) .
,
) 3s 3p; ) 3d 4s; ) 3d 4p
n 3 3 3 4 3 4
ℓ 0 1 2 0 2 1
n+ℓ 3 4 5 4 5 5
3s < 3p 4s < 3d 3d ≈ 4p
3s < 3 4s< 3d 3d ≈ E4p
) 3d, n = 3.
3. , (n + ℓ) 5?
. n ℓ.
n + ℓ 5
n 3 4 5
ℓ 2 1 0
3 d 4 p 5 s
4. 12. , , , .
. : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p. , s 2, p 6. 12: 1 s2 2 s2 2 p6 3 s2. , s- s-. , .
- . , : 1s2 2s2 2p5 - :
9F
↑↓ | ↑↓ | ↑ | ||
↑↓ | ||||
↑↓ |
1 s 2 s 2 p
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
5. - .
.
) : 6 1s22s22p2; - :
6C 2p
2 s | ↑ | ↑ | ||
1 s | ↑↓ | |||
↑↓ |
1 s 2 s 2 p
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
: 2s2 2p2
2s 2p
↑↓ ↑ ↑.
) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p64s23d6. 3d64s2 : 3d 4s
↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↓.
2.2
: () ().
1. , , . - .
1.1. . .
1. , - : ) Li2; ) LiF; ) F2. .
: :
3Li 1s22s12p0 9F 1s22s22p5
- :
2s 2p 2s 2p
↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Li F
2s-, 2p-. , . :
Li-Li Li-F
F-F
, , , - . , - , , .
2. ? .
. 2- . 8 1s22s22p6. 4 6 :
2s 2p
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
. , . F2 F-O-F.
3- . 1s22s22p63s23p4.
3- 9 .
- .
3s 3p 3d
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
3s 3p 3d
↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ (IV)
3s 3p 3d
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ (VI).
2, 4 6 .
SF2; SF4; SF6.
(, ). σ- π- .
3. , 2. 2.
. 6 1s22s22p2 - :
2s 2p
↑↓ ↑ ↑
- (, ): σ- (-), π (-)
p
+ +
|
. ,
, (), , , ().
+ =
, :
2s 2p, 1s
↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ¯
N H
N + 3H NH3
|
N +H+ = H N
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, .
, , .
, s- p- , . . () . , .
1. s p- sp-. , 1800.
, l2:
4Be
1s22s2 *Be 1s22s12p1 ( ). 2s 2p
Cl Be Cl
1800
II , sp-, .
2. s- p- sp2-.
, 3.
5 1s22s22p1 B* 1s22s12p2. s- p- .
III , sp2-, .
3. s- p- sp3- .
, H4:
6 1s22s22p2 C* 1s22s12p3
s- p- .
1090 28¢
IV , sp3-, .
2:
.
2.1
21. n l 14, 23, 35.
22. , , . .
23. , . .
24. - 46, 55.
25. . s- .
26. : n = 4, l = 0, ml = 0. , ? .
27. : 1s22s22p63s23p2 1s22s22p63s13p3. ? , .
28. 24 53. (, , ). - .
29. , : 3s2 3p3, 3d10 4s2 4p5, 4d7 5s2.4p6. .
30. , , , 23, 33, 52.
31. - 40 .
32. , .. (, , ), : ) 1s22s22p63s23p3, ) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d2, ) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5.
33. - : , , . (s-, p-, d-, f- )?
34. - : Fe3+, S2-, Br¯, Cr3+.
35. .
36. - : Cu2+, Cl-, Mg2+.
37. , , , . .
38. 2+, 2-. , 1s22s22p63s23p6. , , .
39. , : ) 3d2
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