Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another. The communication process involves six basic elements: sender (encoder), message, channel, receiver (decoder), noise, and feedback. Supervisors can improve communication skills by becoming aware of these elements and how they contribute to successful communication. Communication can break down at any one of these elements. Thus, according to Robert H. Sheldon, communication is that which takes place when one persons thought or feeling is conveyed to one or more other persons in such a way that it elicits a response, showing either that it has been understood or that clarification is required so that it becomes possible to understand. [Sheldon 1989, p. 1-2]
The sender (or transmitter) initiates the communication process. When the sender has decided on a meaning, he or she encodes a message, and selects a channel for transmitting the message to a receiver. To encode is to put a message into words or images. The message is the information that the sender wants to transmit. The medium is the means of communication, such as print, mass, electrical, and digital. A medium of expression consists of a particular kind of symbol, which must be understood by all parties to the communication. The transmitter should choose the appropriate medium of expression which the receiver of the message would expect, given its particular nature and normal business conventions. An inappropriate medium is one so different from expectation as to divert the receivers attention from the message to the medium itself. [Sheldon 1989, p. 3] As a sender, the supervisor should define the purpose of the message, construct each message with the receiver in mind, select the best medium, time each transmission thoughtfully, and seek feedback. Words can be verbal - written and spoken. Words are used to create pictures and stories (scenarios) are used to create involvement.
Nonverbal messages include images, actions and behaviours used to communicate. Images include photographs, film, charts, tables, graphs, and video. Nonverbal behaviours include actions, body language, and active listening. Actions and body language include eye contact, gestures, facial expressions, posture, and appearance. The effective communicator maintains eye contact for four to five seconds before looking away. Gestures should be natural and well timed. Grooming and dress should be appropriate for the situation. Listening requires good eye contact, alert body posture, and the frequent use of verbal encouragement.
The channel is the path a message follows from the sender to the receiver. It may be either a physical medium or recognised route for transmitting messages. If it can also convey responses it may be said to be fully open. Supervisors use downward channels to send messages to employees. Employees use upward channels to send messages to supervisors. Horizontal channels are used when communicating across departmental lines, with suppliers, or with customers. An informal channel is the grapevine. It exists outside the formal channels and is used by people to transmit casual, personal, and social interchanges at work. The grapevine consists of rumours, gossip, and truthful information. The supervisor should pay attention to the grapevine, but should not depend on it for accurate information. Communications is a system of channels permitting messages to be passed within the area or institution they cover.
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Information technology is revolutionizing the way organizational members communicate. Network systems, electronic links among an organization's computer hardware and software, enable members to communicate instantaneously, to retrieve and share information from anyplace, at anytime. The receiver is the person or group for whom the communication effort is intended. Noise is anything that interferes with the communication (e.g. language barrier, stress, time, culture, stereotypes, sounds, etc.). Feedback is the giving of a response by receivers in such a way that sender knows the message has been received and understood. It ensures that mutual understanding has taken place in a communication. It is the transfer of information from the receiver back to the sender. The receiver decodes or makes out the meaning of the message. Thus, in the feedback loop, the receiver becomes the sender and the sender becomes the receiver.
The Communication Model (the Communication Loop)
Figure 1.1 below shows the graphic representation of the communication process. You can find the basic communication terms mentioned above and see how communication works. Communication is so difficult because at each step in the process there is major potential for error. By the time a message gets from a sender to a receiver there are four basic places where transmission errors can take place and at each place, there is a multitude of potential sources of error. Thus, it is no surprise that social psychologists estimate that there is usually a 40-60% loss of meaning in the transmission of messages from sender to receiver.
It is critical to understand this process, understand and be aware of the potential sources of errors and constantly counteract these tendencies by making a conscientious effort to make sure there is a minimal loss of meaning in your conversation. How this should be done is the subject of the following lectures.
Figure 1.1. Communication Model
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Pay attention to the fact that when the message goes from a sender to a receiver, it is not communication yet; it is just dissemination of information. For the communication model to be complete and real communication to take place, a sender should know that his message is taken, understood and acted upon, i.e. s/he needs feedback. Communication is a two-way process in which all participants and elements are important and may influence its effectiveness.
It is also very important to understand that a majority of communication is non-verbal. This means that when we attribute meaning to what someone else is saying, the verbal part of the message actually means less than the non-verbal part. Nonverbal messages can be understood without a verbal counterpart. A conductor leading an orchestra is an example of a nonverbal message. The use of verbal and nonverbal messages together requires consistency between both messages. The nonverbal message is usually viewed as the more accurate expression of the persons true feelings when they conflict. The use of gestures, movements, material things, time, and space can clarify or confuse the meaning of verbal communication. The types of nonverbal communication most common are: appearance, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, touching, posture, voice, silence, physical space, and time.
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Nonverbal communication is made up of the following parts: visual, tactile, vocal, use of time, space, and image.
Visual: This is often called body language and includes facial expression, eye movement, posture, and gestures.
Facial Expressions. The part of the body more capable of communicating nonverbally than any other part is ones facial area. This is why it is very important to be aware of your facial expressions. They convey meaning that may not be interpreted in your verbal responses.
Eye Contact. Establishing eye contact indicates a persons desire to communicate. When a person breaks eye contact, it sends several signals:
Discomfort with the topic or situation
Desire for the communication encounter to end
Indication that all or part of a message is untrue
Acknowledgement of status difference between sender and receiver
Posture. A persons posture sends signals about different feelings and emotions such as, status, confidence, interest, and openness. People who stand more erect usually have more self-confidence that those lacking confidence. We also look to posture to provide cues about the communicator; posture can indicate self-confidence, aggressiveness, fear, guilt, or anxiety. Similarly, we look at gestures such as how we hold our hands, or a handshake. Many gestures are culture bound and susceptible to misinterpretation
Of course, we can easily misread these cues especially when communicating across cultures where gestures can mean something very different in another culture. For example, in American culture agreement might be indicated by the head going up and down whereas in India, a side-to-side head movement might mean the same thing.
Tactile: This involves the use of touch to impart meaning as in a handshake, a pat on the back, an arm around the shoulder, a kiss, or a hug.
Vocal: The meaning of words can be altered significantly by changing the intonation of one's voice. Think of how many ways you can say "no" - you could express mild doubt, terror, amazement, and anger among other emotions. Vocal meanings vary across cultures. Intonation in one culture can mean support; in other - anger
Voice. Pitch, rhythm, range, rate, non-words and pauses communicate more than actual words. Voice mannerisms also communicate messages about the senders emotional state.
Silence. Silence can communicate that receiver wants the sender to continue talking or that the receiver outranks the sender and is using silence to make the sender feel uncomfortable.
Use of Time as Nonverbal Communication: Use of time can communicate how we view our own status and power in relation to others. Think about how a subordinate and his/her boss would view arriving at a place for an agreed upon meeting.
Physical Space: Someone standing very close to us may make us feel uncomfortable. We feel our "space" has been invaded. People seek to extend their territory in many ways to attain power and intimacy. We tend to mark our territory either with permanent walls, or in a classroom with our coat, pen, paper, etc. We like to protect and control our territory. For Americans, the "intimate zone" is about two feet; this can vary from culture to culture. This zone is reserved for our closest friends. The "personal zone" from about 2-4 feet usually is reserved for family and friends. The social zone (4-12 feet) is where most business transactions take place. The "public zone" (over 12 feet) is used for lectures.
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At the risk of stereotyping, we will generalize and state that Americans and Northern Europeans typify the non-contact group with small amounts of touching and relatively large spaces between them during transactions. Arabs and Latins normally stand closer together and do a lot of touching during communication.
Similarly, we use "things" to communicate. This can involve expensive things, neat or messy things, photographs, plants, etc.
Image: We use clothing and other dimensions of physical appearance to communicate our values and expectations.
